Hossam H. Tayeb*ab,
Shahd A. Moqaddamabc,
Nojod H. Hasaballaha and
Raed I. Felimbanbd
aA Nanomedicine Unit, Centre of Innovations in Personalized Medicine (CIPM), King Abdulaziz University, 21589, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. E-mail: hhtayeb@kau.edu.sa
bDepartment of Medical Laboratory Technology, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, 21589, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
cClinical and Molecular Microbiology Laboratories, King Abdulaziz University Hospital, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, 21589, Saudi Arabia
d3D Bioprinting Unit, Centre of Innovations in Personalized Medicine (CIPM), King Abdulaziz University, 21589, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
First published on 16th September 2022
Antimicrobial resistance (AR), particularly the limited antimicrobial activities of antibiotics and natural compounds, has prompted research into new antimicrobials. Nanoemulsions (NEs) have been found to improve the activity of antimicrobial compounds. This study developed clove essential oil-in-water NEs (CEO-NEs) and water-in-oil-in-water NEs co-encapsulating CEO and meropenem (CEO–MEM-NEs) to investigate the antibacterial activity of these loaded NEs against carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae. Ultrasonication was used to prepare CEO-NEs and CEO–MEM-NEs. Tween 80 and Imwitor 375 surfactants were used to produce CEO-NEs while Tween 80, Imwitor 375, and PGPR were used to produce CEO–MEM-NEs. Droplets' sizes were 138 ± 1.769 and 183.600 ± 0.889 for CEO-NEs and CEO–MEM-NEs, respectively. The resultant NEs were monodispersed, negatively charged, and physically stable. The antibacterial activities of NEs were investigated using broth microdilution, checkerboard, and time-kill assays to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC). CEO-NEs (0.16% CEO MIC) and CEO–MEM-NEs (0.08% CEO and 1 μg mL−1 MEM MICs) completely inactivated K. pneumoniae, and showed functional stability after two weeks of storage at 4 °C. In conclusion, the formulated NEs significantly enhanced the antibacterial activity of CEO and MEM and have great potential as delivery systems of antimicrobial compounds.
Carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae) is one of the most clinically concerning multi-drug resistant (MDR) pathogens, causing a wide range of hospital-acquired infections and outbreaks including pneumonia, septicaemia, and urinary tract infections. Development of carbapenem resistance in K. pneumoniae is attributed to the acquisition of specific resistant mechanisms. For instance, carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae can hydrolyse various broad-spectrum β-lactam antibiotics due to their secretion of β-lactamase enzymes, including extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) and carbapenemases.3 In addition, the involvement of plasmids in the biomanufacturing of β-lactamases by carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae facilitates a high dynamic exchange rate of resistance genes, that complicates the control and treatment of K. pneumoniae.4 These challenges highlight the need for novel, safe, and effective antibacterial drug formulations.5
Plants and their extracts, including essential oils (EOs), have gained considerable attention as antimicrobials. EOs are volatile, hydrophobic compounds known to exhibit antimicrobial activity against several microorganisms.6 Particularly, clove essential oil (CEO) has broad antioxidant, antibacterial, and antifungal properties that contribute to its potential in food, cosmetics, and medical applications. For example, the antimicrobial activities of CEO have been demonstrated in oral hygiene and applied to extend the shelf-life of various food products.7 However, the applications of CEO as an antimicrobial agent are limited by volatility, water insolubility, and light and oxidation sensitivity,8 therefore, these limitations must be overcome before CEO can be developed into new and effective antimicrobial formulations.
Lipid-based nanocarriers, like nanoemulsions (NEs), have shown great potential for improving the physiochemical and antimicrobial properties of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic compounds.9,10 NEs are heterogeneous systems composed of two immiscible liquids where one liquid is dispersed (i.e., the dispersed phase), into other liquid, continuous phase. Amphiphilic surfactants are integrated at the liquid–liquid interface to stabilize NE droplets and impart surface functionalities.11,12 NEs are kinetically stable, 20 to 500 nm droplets, and categorized based on the nature of the dispersed phase (core) as either single (oil-in-water (O/W) and water-in-oil (W/O)) or double (water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) and oil-in-water-in-oil (O/W/O)) emulsions. Single NEs allow for the encapsulation of one cargo type, either water or oil-soluble compounds, while the multi-compartment double NEs accommodate and co-deliver two cargos simultaneously to the intended site of action.13
NEs have been reported as effective platforms to improve the antibacterial activities of EOs in food and medical fields.14–16 For instance, NEs were recently developed to enhance peppermint oil physical and antimicrobial properties and showed physiochemical stability and potent antimicrobial against Escherichia coli.17 The use of generally recognized as safe (GRAS) surfactants and EOs provides NEs with biocompatible profiles for medical applications. Other advantages of NEs include long-term stability, small droplet size, high surface-to-volume ratio, high encapsulation efficiency, and enhanced water solubility of lipophilic compounds.18
NEs long-term stability offer protection of encapsulated EOs from oxidation and volatility. NEs can also enhance the antimicrobial activity of encapsulated compounds by mass transfer, promoting passive cellular absorption and binding to and penetrating cell membranes lipid bilayers via electrostatic interactions and ligand-based targeting.19,20 The advantages and possible delivery mechanisms suggest that NEs could be promising carriers for natural and synthetic antimicrobials.
In this study, novel W/O/W NEs were developed as an antibacterial formulation for the co-delivery of natural (CEO) and synthetic (meropenem, (MEM)) compounds, CEO–MEM-NE. Aqueous solution of CEO and CEO-loaded O/W NE (CEO-NE) were also prepared. Physical stabilities of fresh samples and in different storage conditions of the CEO–MEM-NE and CEO-NE formulations were also investigated. Additionally, the synergistic antimicrobial effect of the encapsulated active natural and synthetic compounds within the W/O/W NEs on carbapenem resistant K. pneumoniae was evaluated and compared to the CEO hydro-soluble solution and CEO-loaded O/W NEs through the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), checkerboard, and time-killing assays. Finally, functional stabilities of the developed NE formulations were also similarly investigated using the same antimicrobial activity tests.
The CEO–MEM-NEs were formulated in two stages. First, W/O NEs were prepared by dispersing the aqueous phase that contained MEM at a final concentration of 705.5 μg mL−1 into the hydrophobic phase composed of 6% v/v PGPR dissolved in Miglyol 812 at a 1:
1 ratio, and 55% v/v CEO as final concentrations. The prepared W/O NEs were then used to prepare double W/O/W NEs with final CEO and MEM concentrations of 10% v/v and 128 μg mL−1, respectively. W/O/W NEs were prepared by dispersing the primary W/O NE, hydrophobic phase, into the external aqueous phase using an ultrasonicator in the presence of 6% v/v Imwitor 375 and 4% v/v Tween 80. The ultrasonication parameters used to synthesize the CEO–MEM-NEs were identical to those used for the preparation of CEO-NEs.
To determine the MBCs, 100 μL of each test well that exhibited no bacterial growth in the MIC tests was subcultured on MHA plates. After overnight incubation at 37 °C, MBCs were determined by observing the lowest concentrations that showed no bacterial growth. To confirm that the selected TTC concentration for the MIC and MBC tests was not contributing to toxic effects on bacterial cells, MBC results were determined without and with TTC solution. The MIC and MBC results were subsequently used for the calculation of MBC/MIC ratios. The antibacterial effects of NE surfactants (Tween 80, Imwitor 375, and PGPR), at the same final concentrations used to prepare CEO-NEs and CEO–MEM-NEs, were also explored against K. pneumoniae using the same MIC values of CEO-NE and CEO–MEM-NE from the microdilution method. Assays were performed using at least three independent replicates.
FICI of CEO-NE = MIC of CEO in CEO–MEM-NE/MIC of CEO-NE |
FICI of aqueous solution = MIC of CEO in CEO–MEM-NE/MIC of CEO aqueous solution |
FICI of MEM = MIC of MEM in CEO–MEM-NE/MIC of MEM solution |
FICIc = FICI of CEO-NE + FICI of MEM |
FICIc = FICI of CEO aqueous solution + FICI of MEM |
FICIc values ≤ 0.5 indicate synergism, FICIc values between 0.5 and 4.0 indicate an additive effect, and FICIc values > 4 indicate antagonism. Assays were performed using at least three independent replicates.
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Fig. 1 The structure of CEO-NE and CEO–MEM-NE. It depicts the surface and core materials used to formulate CEO-NE and CEO–MEM-NE. |
This can be attributed to the selection of appropriate surfactants to stabilize the CEO droplets.23,24 Stability of NEs is also dependent on surface charge and electrostatic repulsive forces between nanodroplets, that delay or prevent droplet aggregation and extend formulation shelf-life. The highly negative surface charges of CEO-NEs (−55.6 mV) and CEO–MEM-NEs (−60.67 mV) are attributed to the semi-synthetic, non-ionic surfactants, Tween 80, and the natural, anionic surfactant Imwitor 375 (Fig. 2). CEO-NEs and CEO–MEM-NEs stability in the high salt medium indicate that the NEs functionalities are retained during the biointeraction with K. pneumoniae.
Shelf-life and stability of NEs in different storage conditions are important factors for ensuring effectiveness in pharmaceutical applications. The stability of CEO-NEs and CEO–MEM-NEs was tested at room temperature and 4 °C over two months. Both formulations remained stable at room temperature and 4 °C following two months in storage. No significant changes to droplet size were observed in CEO-NEs and CEO–MEM-NEs during storage at room temperature or 4 °C over two months (Fig. 3 and 4). Selecting low aqueous solubility oil core, and surfactants with appropriate chemical characteristics can effectively minimize or delay destabilization mechanisms in NEs, like Ostwald ripening.
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Fig. 3 Stability of CEO-NE based on droplets' average size for two months storage. Room temperature (black), 4 °C (grey). |
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Fig. 4 Stability of CEO–MEM-NE based on droplets' average size for two months storage. Room temperature (black), 4 °C (grey). |
To determine the appropriate concentration of TTC for the MIC assays, two TTC concentrations (0.05% and 0.005%) were compared to TTC-free conditions during the microdilution assay. Findings from the MIC assay revealed that 0.05% v/v TTC demonstrated two-fold higher antimicrobial activities for MEM and CEO aqueous solution when compared to MEM and CEO aqueous solution assayed in the presence of 0.005% TTC, expanding cytotoxicity on bacterial cells (Fig. 5 and S3–S5, and Table S2†). These results indicated that 0.05% TTC had a slight toxic effect on K. pneumoniae exacerbating the antimicrobial activity of the different test samples and interfering with the final MIC results (Fig. 5 and S3–S7 and Table S2†).
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Fig. 5 MICs of CEO aqueous solution and NEs against K. pneumoniae BAA-1705 with addition of 0.005% TTC. (■) CEO aqueous solution, (▲) CEO-NE, (●) CEO–MEM-NE, (♦) meropenem. |
To further confirm that 0.005% TTC has no contribution to the antimicrobial activity of the test samples, MBC assays were performed with and without 0.005% TTC. No significant differences were observed between MBCs with and without 0.005% TTC, indicating that 0.005% TTC had no cytotoxic effect on bacterial cells (Table 1). 0.005% TTC was found to be a suitable concentration for measuring bacterial growth of CEO-NE and CEO–MEM-NEs. Similar results were also reported in a previous study showing that 0.005% TTC can be used as a non-toxic indicator for the antibacterial activity testing against various genera of the Enterobacterales.26
0.005% TTC | No TTC | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
MIC | MBC | MBC/MIC | MBC | |
MEM (μg mL−1) | 16 | 16 | 1 | 16 |
CEO aqueous solution (%) | 5 | 5 | 1 | 5 |
CEO-NE (%) | 0.16 | 0.16 | 1 | 0.16 |
CEO–MEM-NE CEO% (MEM μg mL−1) | 0.08 (1) | 0.08 (1) | 1 | 0.08 (1) |
Preparation of NEs with GRAS components ensures safety for human application. The antimicrobial activities of the starting components (CEO aqueous solution, MEM, and surfactants) used to formulate CEO-NE and CEO–MEM-NE were evaluated and shown in Fig. 5. The MICs of CEO aqueous solution and MEM were 5% v/v and 16 μg mL−1, respectively. The incubation of K. pneumoniae with the GRAS surfactants used to prepare the NEs, showed absorbance levels similar to the positive control (i.e., no bactericidal effect), indicating that Imwitor 375, PGPR, and Tween 80 have no cytotoxic effect on bacterial cells at the MIC concentrations (as shown in Fig. S8†).
The antimicrobial activities of CEO-NEs, and CEO–MEM-NEs were tested using MIC and MBC assays. Encapsulation of CEO within the core of O/W NEs significantly enhanced CEO antibacterial activity against K. pneumoniae, from 5% to 0.16%, when compared to pure CEO (Fig. 5, S5 and S6†). These findings indicate that NEs facilitated CEO delivery and interaction with K. pneumoniae, significantly reducing the required CEO concentration to exert a bactericidal effect.
Co-encapsulation of natural and synthetic drugs in nanocarriers is a promising approach for tackling antimicrobial resistance. In this study, the encapsulation of CEO and MEM in surfactant-stabilized W/O/W NE significantly (p-value < 0.0001) reduced the minimum concentration required to inhibit growth of K. pneumoniae from 5% to 0.08% and 16 μg mL−1 to 1 μg mL−1, respectively (Fig. 5 and S7† and Table 1). CEO–MEM-NEs have demonstrated significantly higher bactericidal activity against carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae when compared to CEO aqueous solution and CEO-NEs (p-value 0.0072) (Fig. 5 and S7,† and Table 1). These promising results are attributed to the co-encapsulation of MEM and CEO into double NE compartments, producing synergism and potent bactericidal effect on K. pneumoniae. The resulting antimicrobial activity of CEO–MEM-NEs reduced the required MICs of MEM and CEO to completely kill K. pneumoniae by 16 and 64 folds, respectively.
Droplet sizes of the prepared NEs were less than 200 nm and at least 10 times smaller than the size of bacterial cells, facilitating cargo delivery via cell membrane through hydrophilic porin channels and/or passive cellular absorption. Subsequent release of NE contents by various mechanisms such as mass transport, adhesion, and simple diffusion, disrupts bacterial cellular membranes leading to cell death.24,27–29 Similarly, previous studies have shown that NEs can enhance the antimicrobial activity of CEO and other EOs, such as cinnamon, tea tree, and thyme.28,30,31 However, deeper understanding of NEs biointeraction with bacterial cells and release of payload is still needed.
Previous research suggests that the cationic surfaces of nanoparticles facilitate biointeractions with the negatively charged bacterial cells while anionic surfaces may interfere with cell binding. However, charge-dependent drug delivery can also contribute to non-specific binding to normal mammalian cells and undesired cytotoxicity.32 In this study, the anionic surfaces of CEO-NEs and CEO–MEM-NEs did not interfere with the delivery of cargos and antibacterial activity against K. pneumoniae.
Antimicrobials are classified either as bactericidal or bacteriostatic compounds. Antibacterial compound is classified as bactericidal if the MBC/MIC ratio is ≤4 and bacteriostatic if >4.33 In this study, the MBC/MIC ratios indicate that CEO aqueous solution and NEs have bactericidal activity against carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae BAA-1705 (Table 1).
MICO | MICC | FICI | FICIc | Type of interaction | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
a MICO: MIC of one component alone, MICC: MIC of one component in the most effective combination, FICI: fractional inhibitory concentration index of one component in the most effective combination, FICIc: total FICI of the combination of both components. | |||||
MEM (μg mL−1) | 16 | 1 | 0.063 | — | — |
CEO aqueous solution (%) | 5 | 0.08 | 0.016 | 0.079 | Synergistic |
CEO-NE (%) | 0.16 | 0.08 | 0.5 | 0.563 | Synergistic |
CEO–MEM-NEs can achieve similar killing rate of CEO-NE at two-fold higher CEO concentration of CEO-NE. This can be explained by the antibacterial synergistic effect of the encapsulated compounds, CEO and MEM, loaded within the multicompartment CEO–MEM-NEs. K. pneumoniae treatment with one-half the MIC (0.08% CEO for CEO-NEs, and 0.04% CEO and 0.5 μg mL−1 MEM for CEO–MEM-NEs) did not affect cells viability with CFU results were similar to those of untreated K. pneumoniae cells (Fig. S9†). These results demonstrate that both NEs exhibited concentration-dependent killing activity.
CEO-NEs and CEO–MEM-NEs were successfully prepared using the ultrasonic emulsification technique yielding small (<200 nm) monodispersed droplets with highly negative surface charges. Stability studies revealed that these characteristics prevented droplet aggregation and gravitational precipitation and improved stability of the resultant NEs.
Bacterial growth conditions are important factors for studying the activity of antimicrobial compounds. In this study, a non-toxic concentration of the bacterial growth indicator, TTC, was determined to conduct reliable microdilution assays. The antibacterial studies showed significant improvement in the efficacy of the encapsulated antimicrobial compounds, CEO and MEM. CEO–MEM-NEs reduced the MIC of CEO and MEM by 64 and 16 folds, respectively. CEO–MEM-NEs demonstrated potent antimicrobial effect against K. pneumoniae, that is attributed to the achieved synergism between CEO and MEM.
Preparation of NEs with GRAS materials ensures safety for human application. The raw materials used for NE preparation, including CEO, demonstrated no or minimal antimicrobial properties when applied individually on bacterial cells. By contrast, the developed single and multiple compartment NEs significantly enhanced the delivery of both lipophilic and hydrophilic compounds, creating a potent antibacterial effect on K. pneumoniae. CEO-NEs and CEO–MEM-NEs demonstrated a concentration-dependent antibacterial killing activity. These results support previous studies that describe how NEs can improve the delivery and therapeutic efficiency of encapsulated antimicrobial compounds with acceptable safety profiles.
Long-term functional stability of the NEs as a drug delivery system could pave the way for further downstream applications, particularly for enhancing the antimicrobial activity of different EOs and antibiotics in the treatment of human pathogens. Mechanistic understanding of surface interactions of the developed NEs with K. pneumoniae and other clinically targeted microorganisms is urged in future studies.
Footnote |
† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available. See https://doi.org/10.1039/d2ra03925g |
This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2022 |