Abdollah Dargahia,
Davood Nematollahib,
Ghorban Asgaria,
Reza Shokoohia,
Amin Ansarib and
Mohammad Reza Samarghandi*c
aDepartment of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran. E-mail: a.dargahi29@yahoo.com
bFaculty of Chemistry, Bu-Ali-Sina University, Hamadan, Iran
cResearch Center for Health Sciences and Dep. Environmental Engineering School of Public Health, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran. E-mail: samarghandi@umsha.ac.ir
First published on 26th November 2018
This study aimed to investigate the electro-degradation of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) from aqueous solution using two and three-dimensional electrode (2D and 3D) reactors with graphite(G)/β-PbO2 anode. To increase the degradation efficiency, affecting parameters on the electro-degradation process were investigated and optimized by adopting the Taguchi design of experiments approach. The structure, morphology and electrochemical properties of the electrodes were studied by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), linear sweep voltammetry and cyclic voltammograms. The controllable factors, i.e., electrolysis time, 2,4-D initial concentration, solution pH and current density (j) were optimized. Under optimum conditions, the 2,4-D degradation efficiency was 75.6% using 2D and 93.5% using 3D electrode processes. The percentage contribution of each controllable factor was also determined. The pH of the solution was identified as the most influential factor, and its percentage contribution value was up to 39.9% and 40.4% for 2D and 3D electrode processes, respectively. Considering the parameters of the kinetics, it was found that the degradation of 2,4-D and removal of COD using the G/β-PbO2 electrode obey the pseudo-first order kinetics. In addition, the mineralization pathway of 2,4-D at G/β-PbO2 electrode was proposed. The results also demonstrated that the 3D electrode process with G/β-PbO2 anode can be considered as a useful method for degradation and mineralization of 2,4-D herbicides from aqueous solution.
The term pesticide is a generic name, which includes a number of the biologically-active compounds, e.g., herbicides, fungicides and insecticides. It has been clarified that there are more than 1400 active ingredients in the various commercial mixtures of pesticides.3,4
2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, 2,4-D, is known as one of the oldest and most widely used herbicides in the world, its application dating back to 1945, and it is applied for the selective control of weeds in gardens and farms. Its commercial formula contains esters, acids and several salts that are characteristically different and highly toxic.3,5 The chemical structure of 2,4-D is presented in Fig. S1.†
Based on the insufficient evidence in humans and limited evidence in experimental animals, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization has categorized the 2,4-D as “possibly carcinogenic substance to humans”.2,5,6 The extensive use of pesticides, and inappropriate wastewater treatment methods has led the contamination of water resources, and the creation of hazardous effects on ecology and the environment.6 Hence, treating the wastewater prior to releasing it into the environment is necessary.
Accordingly, a number of the techniques, e.g., advanced oxidation process (AOPs),3,7,8 adsorption,2,9 plasma-ozonation,10 photo-catalytic degradation,11–13 electrochemical process,14 have been immeasurably applied to remove the 2,4-D herbicide; but, these techniques were not sufficiently successful and were associated with serious problems such as high cost, incomplete pollutant removal, production of toxic and additional toxic products, the need for adding the chemical compounds, sludge production and need for more treatment.11 One of the new techniques to treat the water and wastewater is the electrochemical advanced oxidation processes (EAOPs), which are considered as the eco-friendly method due to the application of non-toxic reagent, i.e., the electron, in these processes. The simplest and commonly used EAOP is anodic oxidation or electrochemical oxidation in which the physisorbed M(·OH) radical formed by the water oxidation participates to degrade the organics.15
After several decades of development, a rapid and profound progress has been observed in context of the electrochemical oxidation processes, especially on anode research. The anode electrodes, due to having a great potential for the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and having the capability to produce the weakly adsorbed hydroxyl radicals, are as accounted for as the superb anodes for electro-oxidation of the organic pollutants.14 Hereupon, these electrodes are divided into two groups, i.e., active electrodes (RuO2, IrO2, Pt) and non-active electrode (PbO2, TiO2, SnO2, BDD).16 The oxygen evolution over potential of non-active electrodes are remarkable and oxidative degradation using these electrodes is directly performed by the adsorbed hydroxyl radicals, produced from water discharge.16–18 Low cost, ease of preparation, high conductivity, good corrosion resistance, high oxygen evolution potential and long service lifetime has identified as the superior properties of non-active electrodes, e.g., PbO2 rather than the active electrodes, e.g. platinum or ruthenium oxide.19 Moreover, they have found to be stable both at high potentials and at media with different pH values.20,21 Zhou et al. (2007) studied the influence of electrochemical methods on PbO2 and confirmed that the lead dioxide, formed by the galvanostatic method, is more effective and has a continuous structure which shows a low charge transfer resistance. In other studies, the influence of pH media deposition/dissolution of PbO2 on BDD support was emphasized. They found that strong alkaline electrolyte can conduct to the dissolution of PbO2.22 However, in an acidic and neutral media, PbO2 morphology has a good correlation with the obtainment of high oxygen over potential.23 For a further enhancement of the electrocatalytic proprieties of PbO2 during various anodic reactions, the incorporation of metal oxide, such as TiO2,24 RuO2,25 CeO2,26 SS/PbO2,23 and ZrO2,27 into lead dioxide matrix was realized. These researches have indicated that the performance of PbO2 electrode is influenced significantly by metal oxide particles.28
Despite these unique benefits, there are still limits for their industrial application which include the short lifetime of electrode materials and low current efficiency. In addition, mass transfer limitation, small space-time yield, low area–volume ratio and increasing the temperature during the process are of other natural drawbacks of these processes.29
These limitations can be reduced by applying the three-dimensional (3D) electrochemical process. The elimination of the target contaminant using the 3D electrode process is much higher due to the higher specific surface area and, consequently, greater active sites compared to the two-dimensional (2D) electrodes.29 The 3D electrode process has many similarities to the 2D counterpart in electrode materials and treatment processes, but it differs in terms of the presence of a third electrode. The third electrode, which is also known as a particle or bed electrode, essentially contains a granular or a particle material that fills between two electrodes. At an appropriate voltage, these particles are polarized and a large number of charged microelectrodes are formed in which one of their surfaces acts as an anode and other acts as a cathode. Hence, due to the presence of particle electrodes, the 3D electrode process provides better efficiency than the 2D electrodes.29
The exceptional features of particle electrode materials (such as activated carbon, carbon aerogel, and graphite particles), e.g. large specific surface area and high electro-activity, provide the greater mass transfer and reduce the energy consumption29,30
Among different materials used as particle electrodes, the granular activated carbon (GAC) is most widely used due to its unique properties, such as low cost, chemical stability and high surface area.31 In this research, the third dimension consists of the granules of activated carbon and the anode electrode of G/β-PbO2. These electrodes are widely used because of the advantages, e.g., easier preparation by electrochemical coatings, low electrical resistance, low cost, availability and good electrochemical activity.17,20,21 The mechanism of this electrochemical process is anodic oxidation; the anodic oxidation is one of the most important electrochemical processes for the removal of organic contaminants from water.
In the present study, the reaction mechanisms of 2,4-D herbicide degradation by a three-dimensional electrode reactor with activated carbon, as particle electrodes, was investigated. To develop the use of β-PbO2 electrode for mineralization of 2,4-D herbicide, in the present study, the electrocatalytic activity and efficiency of graphite (G)/β-PbO2 electrode for 2,4-D herbicide degradation in aqueous solution were studied. The surface morphology and crystal structure of G/β-PbO2 electrode were characterized by SEM, EDX and XRD respectively. Furthermore, the behavior of 2,4-D and produced intermediates during oxidative degradation were studied by cyclic voltammetry. This study proposed the mechanisms for the electrochemical oxidation and oxidative degradation of 2,4-D herbicide. The optimization of the 3D electrode and traditional 2D electrolysis process is essential. Taguchi method, as a strong design approach, was adopted to find the optimum operational parameters for achieving the highest 2,4-D degradation efficiency using 3D process in the aqueous solution. In this study, different parameters, e.g., initial pH, initial 2,4-D concentrations, current density (j) and electrolysis time were assessed as the controllable factors. Hereupon, the percentage contribution of each abovementioned experimental parameter is determined using the Taguchi method.
The residues of 2,4-D in the solution, after electrolysis, were measured using a UV-vis spectrophotometer (DR 6000, HACH, USA) and the accuracy and the validity of the observed data was estimated using the high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) Agilent 1260 infinity (Agilent Technologies Co. Ltd., USA). The conditions to apply the HPLC were as follows: the mobile phase = a mixture of water and acetonitrile (50:
50 v/v, HPLC grade, Merck), flow rate = 1 mL min−1, temperature = 25 °C. The ICP-OES (Optima-8300) was utilized to measure the leaching of Pb2+ after the complete degradation of the 2,4-D in the studied processes.
Moreover, the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) was determined by COD ampoules (HACH Chemical) using a spectrophotometer (DR 6000, HACH, USA) to assess the mineralization of the 2,4-D herbicide in solution; the accuracy and validity of the COD measurements was assessed by the potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP).
Linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) and cyclic voltammetry (CV) were implemented using the Autolab PGSTAT-20 instrument monitored with the Electrochemical System Software (Nova) at room temperature. A glassy carbon disc (1.8 mm2 area) was the electrode used in the voltammetry experiments. A platinum wire and an Ag/AgCl (3 M) were applied as the counter electrode and the reference electrode, respectively.
The intermediates analysis carried out using the LC/MS (Shimadzu LCMS 2010 A) system equipped with C18 column (100 mm × 2.1 mm) and an electron spray ionization source. The mobile phase consisted of 60/40% acetonitrile/ultra-pure water + 0.1% formic acid was employed for the analysis. Mass spectra (MS) was carried out under following conditions: Mode, ESI+; detection gain, 1.8 kV; prob volt, 4 kV; CDL volt, 25 V; gas nebulizer, N2 (grade 5); flow gas, 1.2 L min−1; CDL temperature, 250 °C; block temperature, 250 °C.
The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) (model HITACHI S-4160, Japan) was applied to study the surface morphology of the PbO2 deposited onto the graphite bed. The analysis of the phase structure of the PbO2 layer was carried out using the X-ray diffraction (XRD pattern) by X'Pert Pro diffractometer (Rigaku RINT2200, Japan). The diffractograms were recorded with a 2θ step width of 0.1° and a scan rate of 1520 s/0.1° at 40 kV and the electron probe current of 40 mA.
The preparation of the simulative wastewater was carried out by dissolving 50100
150 and 200 mg L−1 of 2,4-D herbicide in distilled water with 4 g L−1 Na2SO4 as supporting electrolyte. A direct current (DC) power supply (DAZHENG PS-305D, China) with the electric current of 0–5 A and voltage of 0–30 V was applied to supply the electrical current. The magnetic stirrer and the magnet rotor were used to ensure the mixing effects. To eradicate the effect of the 2,4-D herbicide adsorption, the particle electrodes were initially immersed in 2,4-D herbicide simulated wastewater until the saturation and then were utilized to fill between the main electrodes. All batch experiments were performed in duplicate at room temperature.
The measurement of linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) was performed for the studied β-PbO2 electrodes on a classical undivided cell configuration with a platinum wire counter electrode and a glassy carbon disc as the working electrode versus an Ag/AgCl reference electrode during the electrolysis. Before each experiment, the glassy carbon electrode was carefully polished using the Struers Water Proof Silicon Carbide Paper (granulometry 2400 and 4000) to reach the stable background voltammogram (Na2SO4 0.1 M). During the studied process, the degradation of 2,4-D, the formation of the intermediates and the removal of COD were also controlled by LSV. In order to analyze the COD, the samples were digested in the COD reactor for 2 h at 150 °C.
Tests | Factor | HDE (%) | S/N | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | B | C | D | EC, 2D | EC, 3D | EC, 2D | EC, 3D | |||
HDE2 | HDE1 | HDE2 | HDE1 | |||||||
a HDE1 and HDE2 for both electrochemical process represents the herbicide degradation efficiency at first and second test pieces, respectively. The boldfaces correspond to the maximum value of S/N ratio among the 16 tests. | ||||||||||
Tests 1 | 3 | 30 | 50 | 3 | 34.96 | 33.5 | 55.35 | 55.15 | 30.68 | 34.84 |
Tests 2 | 50 | 100 | 5 | 51.92 | 49.5 | 72.31 | 71.15 | 34.09 | 37.11 | |
Tests 3 | 80 | 150 | 7 | 63.76 | 62 | 84.5 | 82.65 | 35.96 | 38.44 | |
Tests 4 | 100 | 200 | 9 | 72.71 | 71.2 | 91.87 | 92.23 | 37.14 | 39.28 | |
Tests 5 | 5 | 30 | 100 | 7 | 42.75 | 43.7 | 63.14 | 64.05 | 32.71 | 36.06 |
Tests 6 | 50 | 50 | 9 | 67.72 | 66.32 | 88.44 | 86.77 | 36.52 | 38.85 | |
Tests 7 | 80 | 200 | 3 | 51.8 | 51.25 | 72.88 | 72.19 | 34.24 | 37.21 | |
Tests 8 | 100 | 150 | 5 | 62.96 | 61.5 | 82.65 | 83.95 | 35.87 | 38.41 | |
Tests 9 | 7 | 30 | 150 | 9 | 37.3 | 35.5 | 57.69 | 56.15 | 31.21 | 35.10 |
Tests 10 | 50 | 200 | 7 | 34.9 | 35.68 | 56.36 | 55.73 | 30.95 | 34.97 | |
Tests 11 | 80 | 50 | 5 | 41.14 | 42.8 | 61.53 | 63.75 | 32.45 | 35.93 | |
Tests 12 | 100 | 100 | 3 | 43.26 | 44.65 | 63.65 | 65.82 | 32.85 | 36.22 | |
Tests 13 | 10 | 30 | 200 | 5 | 11.365 | 11.5 | 31.76 | 32.25 | 21.16 | 30.10 |
Tests 14 | 50 | 150 | 3 | 19.6 | 20.15 | 39.19 | 41.8 | 25.96 | 32.13 | |
Tests 15 | 80 | 100 | 9 | 51.7 | 52.42 | 72.59 | 72.81 | 34.33 | 37.23 | |
Tests 16 | 100 | 50 | 7 | 47.4 | 46.83 | 67.97 | 67.58 | 33.46 | 36.62 |
After adjusting all components of the daily prepared solution, the samples were collected at predetermined time intervals by passing through 0.45 μm membrane filter, and the concentration of 2,4-D was determined using a UV-vis spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 282 nm. In addition, the HPLC (Agilent Technologies Co. Ltd., USA) at a wavelength of 282 nm was used to validate the accuracy of the results obtained by the UV-vis spectrophotometer. To assess the mineralization degree, the chemical oxygen demand (COD) was measured based on the standard method.
The eqn (1) was employed to calculate the herbicide degradation efficiency (HDE):
![]() | (1) |
The COD removal was calculated by eqn (2):
![]() | (2) |
In the Taguchi method, for the accurate analysis of the results, a converted response function which is defined as the ratio of the sign of each effect (S) to the effects caused by the error (N) is used. In this study, the response is HDE. The S/N ratio is calculated using the eqn (3).32,33 The n represents the number of replicates of the experiment and HDE shows the results of the experiments. The average S/N ratio for both 2D and 3D electrochemical processes is presented for the analysis of 2,4-D herbicide in Tables 2 and 3.
![]() | (3) |
Factor/level | j = 1 | j = 2 | j = 3 | j = 4 | M |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
a The boldface corresponds to the maximum value of the mean of the S/N ratios of a certain factor among the four levels. | |||||
pH/1 | 30.68 | 34.09 | 35.97 | 37.14 | 34.47 |
pH/2 | 32.71 | 36.52 | 34.24 | 35.88 | 34.84 |
pH/3 | 31.21 | 30.95 | 32.45 | 32.85 | 31.86 |
pH/4 | 21.16 | 25.96 | 34.33 | 33.46 | 28.73 |
Electrolysis time/1 | 30.68 | 32.71 | 31.21 | 21.16 | 28.94 |
Electrolysis time/2 | 34.09 | 36.52 | 30.95 | 25.96 | 31.88 |
Electrolysis time/3 | 35.96 | 34.24 | 32.45 | 34.33 | 34.24 |
Electrolysis time/4 | 37.14 | 35.87 | 32.85 | 33.46 | 34.83 |
2,4-D concentration/1 | 30.68 | 36.52 | 32.45 | 33.46 | 33.28 |
2,4-D concentration/2 | 34.09 | 32.71 | 32.85 | 34.33 | 33.49 |
2,4-D concentration/3 | 35.97 | 35.87 | 31.21 | 25.96 | 32.25 |
2,4-D concentration/4 | 37.14 | 34.24 | 30.95 | 21.16 | 30.87 |
Current density/1 | 30.68 | 34.24 | 32.85 | 25.96 | 30.93 |
Current density/2 | 34.09 | 35.88 | 32.45 | 21.16 | 30.89 |
Current density/3 | 35.97 | 32.71 | 30.95 | 33.46 | 33.27 |
Current density/4 | 37.14 | 36.52 | 31.217 | 31.26 | 34.03 |
Factor/level | j = 1 | j = 2 | j = 3 | j = 4 | M |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
a The boldface corresponds to the maximum value of the mean of the S/N ratios of a certain factor among the four levels. | |||||
pH/1 | 34.85 | 37.11 | 38.44 | 39.28 | 37.42 |
pH/2 | 36.07 | 38.85 | 37.21 | 38.41 | 37.63 |
pH/3 | 35.10 | 34.97 | 35.93 | 36.22 | 35.55 |
pH/4 | 30.10 | 32.13 | 37.23 | 36.62 | 34.02 |
Electrolysis time/1 | 34.85 | 36.07 | 35.10 | 30.10 | 34.03 |
Electrolysis time/2 | 37.11 | 38.85 | 34.97 | 32.13 | 35.77 |
Electrolysis time/3 | 38.44 | 37.21 | 35.93 | 37.23 | 37.20 |
Electrolysis time/4 | 39.28 | 38.4 | 36.22 | 36.62 | 37.63 |
2,4-D concentration/1 | 34.85 | 38.85 | 35.93 | 36.62 | 36.56 |
2,4-D concentration/2 | 37.11 | 36.07 | 36.22 | 37.23 | 36.66 |
2,4-D concentration/3 | 38.44 | 38.41 | 35.10 | 32.13 | 36.02 |
2,4-D concentration/4 | 39.28 | 37.21 | 34.97 | 30.10 | 35.39 |
Current density/1 | 34.85 | 37.21 | 36.22 | 32.13 | 35.10 |
Current density/2 | 37.11 | 38.41 | 35.93 | 30.10 | 35.39 |
Current density/3 | 38.44 | 36.06 | 34.97 | 36.62 | 36.52 |
Current density/4 | 39.28 | 38.85 | 35.10 | 37.23 | 37.62 |
In this study, an analysis of means (ANOM) was used to determine the optimal conditions. At first, the average S/N ratio of each factor was calculated at a certain level. For example, the averages S/N ratio of factor I at level i can be calculated from eqn (4).
![]() | (4) |
In eqn (4), nIi is the number of conditions for the factor I and level i in the experiment, which it is 2 in this study. Also, is the S/N ratio of the experiments with the condition of factor I and level i. Similarly, this ratio is calculated for all factors and average levels. Finally, an experiment is conducted using the optimal conditions to confirm the method used. In this study, analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to evaluate the effect of each factor on the rate of 2,4-D herbicide degradation. The percentage of the effect of each factor was determined using eqn (5).
![]() | (5) |
In this regard, DOFF is the degree of freedom of each factor (one unit less than the number of levels of the target factor, which is 4 in this research). The total sum of squares (SST) can also be calculated from eqn (6).
![]() | (6) |
The value of is obtained from the eqn (7) in which m is the number of experiments (in this study is equal to 16) and n is the number of repetition of the experiment in the same conditions (it is equal to 2 in present study).
![]() | (7) |
The sum of the factorial squares (SSF)5 is calculated using eqn (8).
![]() | (8) |
![]() | (9) |
Energy-dispersive X-rays (EDX) technique was utilized to determine the elemental structure of the β-PbO2 and its results were represented in Fig. S3(b).† These figure shows that the main elements existed in the β-PbO2 were the oxygen (O) and lead (Pb). Moreover, the weight percentage of oxygen (O) and lead (Pb) was observed to be 20.9% and 79.1%, respectively.
Furthermore, to discover the phases and crystallinity of PbO2 and purity of the deposited film, the X-ray diffraction patterns (XRD) was utilized. The XRD of the PbO2 layer deposited in the graphite interlayers is shown in Fig. S3(c)† in which the diffraction peaks of β form related to PbO2 has characterized. The XRD results are representative of the tetragonal structure of β-PbO2. The tetragonal β-PbO2, unlike the orthorhombic α-PbO2, is associated with good conductivity,34,35 which can extraordinarily aid the electro-oxidation of contaminants in aqueous solution using anode studied. The major diffraction peaks were detected at 2θ of 25.4°, 32.0°, 36.2°, 49.1° and 62.5° for graphite electrode, which they corresponded to the (110), (101), (200), (211), (220) plane of β-PbO2, respectively.17,36 It is important to note that all samples demonstrate the existence of β-PbO2. In addition, Debye–Scherrer formula was applied to calculate the average size of β-PbO2;17 Considering the data calculated by this formula, the size of β-PbO2 crystals in the G/β-PbO2 electrode was 30.2 nm. These results are agreed with the results of SEM (Fig. S3a†).
Factor | A | B | C | D | HDE1 | HDE2 | S/N |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Test 4 for 2D | 3 | 100 | 200 | 9 | 72.71 | 71.2 | 37.14 |
Optimization condition for 2D | 5 | 100 | 100 | 9 | 75.26 | 75.95 | 37.57 |
Test 4 for 3D | 3 | 100 | 200 | 9 | 91.87 | 92.23 | 39.28 |
Optimization condition for 3D | 5 | 100 | 100 | 9 | 93.68 | 93.31 | 39.42 |
Electrodegradation process | Level | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2D | Level 1 | 54.944 | 31.322 | 47.584 | 37.396 | 45.741 |
Level 2 | 56 | 43.224 | 47.487 | 41.586 | ||
Level 3 | 39.404 | 52.108 | 45.346 | 47.127 | ||
Level 4 | 32.621 | 56.314 | 42.551 | 56.859 | ||
3D | Level 1 | 75.651 | 51.942 | 68.317 | 58.254 | 66.435 |
Level 2 | 76.759 | 63.969 | 68.19 | 62.419 | ||
Level 3 | 60.085 | 72.862 | 66.07 | 67.747 | ||
Level 4 | 53.244 | 76.965 | 63.158 | 77.319 |
ED | Factor | DOFF | SSF | RF (%) | SST | VER |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2D | pH: A | 3 | 3217.94 | 39.996 | 8026.02 | 2.61105 |
Electrolysis time (min): B | 3 | 2932.631 | 36.441 | |||
2,4-D concentration (mg L−1): C | 3 | 134.242 | 1.575 | |||
Current density (mA cm−2): D | 3 | 1699.43 | 21.076 | |||
3D | pH: A | 3 | 3246.81 | 40.435 | 8007.29 | 3.0106 |
Electrolysis time (min): B | 3 | 2946.47 | 36.684 | |||
2,4-D concentration (mg L−1): C | 3 | 139.912 | 1.634 | |||
Current density (mA cm−2): D | 3 | 1625.93 | 20.193 |
The confirmation experiment was implemented based on the aforementioned optimum conditions, the HDE of 2D and 3D electrochemical process registered, and the S/N ratio was calculated (Table 4). The value of the S/N ratio under optimum conditions (2D = 37.57 and 3D = 39.42) slightly exceeds that in Test 4 (2D: 37.14 and 3D: 39.28), and the average HDE under optimum conditions (2D: 75.6% and 3D: 93.49%) indeed exceeds that in Test 4 (2D: 71.6% and 3D: 92.05%). Although the difference of the S/N ratio between the optimum conditions and Test 4 is very little, the 2,4-D herbicide concentration is substantially decreased from 200 mg L−1 (Test 4) to 100 mg L−1 (optimum conditions) and the pH is substantially increased from 3 (Test 4) to 5 (optimum conditions). Furthermore, the HDE increased from 71.6% to 75.6% for 2D and from 92.05% to 93.49% 3DThese results are pretty exciting due to the fact the lower 2,4-D herbicide and more pH corresponds to a better electrochemical process.
MOx + H2O → MOx(HO˙) + H+ + e− | (10) |
In the next step, the electrochemically generated MOx(HO˙), which is accounted for as one of the strongest oxidants, mineralize the organic matter (eqn (11)).17,39 Additionally, the MOx(HO˙) can produce the O2 gas (eqn (12)); this reaction is considered as a competitor for the reaction represented in eqn (11).
R + MOx(HO˙) → mCO2 + nH2O + xH+ + ye− | (11) |
2MOx(HO˙) → 2MOx + O2 + 2H+ + 2e− | (12) |
Previous studies revealed that the oxygen evolution reaction considerably depends on the value of oxygen evolution over-potential; so that, the oxygen evolution reaction has introduced as the main reaction for the electrodes with the low oxygen evolution over-potential; however, for the electrodes with high oxygen evolution over-potential, this reaction is difficult; hence, the reaction (11) occurs before the reaction (12), and it develops the efficiency of the mineralization reaction.17,39
The (M) are shown in (Fig. 1a–h) for the experimental conditions proposed by Taguchi method. Each of the factors affecting in 2,4-D herbicide degradation is as follows:
Methods | Electrode type | pH | C0 (mg L−1) | Time (min) | j | Degradation (%) | COD (%) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
a *Not considered, ** three-dimensional electrode and *** two-dimensional electrode. | ||||||||
Electrochemical process | SS316 | 7 | 100 | 50 | 3 mA cm−2 | 17.65 | * | 7 |
Electrochemical process | Graphite | 7 | 100 | 50 | 3 mA cm−2 | 47.76 | * | 7 |
Electrochemical process | Pb/PbO2 | 6 | 100 | 120 | 60 mA cm−2 | 57 | 56 | 2 |
Coupling electrooxidation and oxone | PbO2 | 4 | 40 | 90 | 30 mA cm−2 | 91 | * | 1 |
Photo assisted electro-peroxone | Platinum sheet | 7 | 25 | 30 | 350 mA | 89 | * | 3 |
Microwave activated electrochemical | BDD | * | 100 | 180 | 55 mA | 91 | 88 | 4 |
Coupled Fenton and biological oxidation | * | 3 | 180 | 480 | * | 80 | 85–90 | 5 |
Oxidation process | * | 3 | 200 | 120 | * | 68 | * | 6 |
Electrochemical coagulation process | iron | 7 | 50 | 180 | 100 mA cm−2 | 91 | * | 8 |
Electrodegradation** | G/β-PbO2 | 5 | 100 | 100 | 9 mA cm−2 | 87.6 | 92.1 | This study |
Electrodegradation*** | G/β-PbO2 | 5 | 100 | 100 | 9 mA cm−2 | 70.2 | 75.3 | This study |
![]() | ||
Scheme 1 Proposed pathway for electrocatalytic degradation of 2,4-D herbicide by anodic oxidation on G/β-PbO2 electrode. |
The obtained plots with high correlation coefficients (R2) (Table S3†) imply that the kinetic behavior can be explained by a pseudo-first order model.17,18,36,39 The kinetics coefficients K are presented in Table S3.† The parameters of the kinetics (Table S3†) exhibited that there is a good linear relationship; furthermore, the degradation of 2,4-D on the G/β-PbO2 electrode followed pseudo-first order kinetics, which it indicates that this electrode has a good electro-degradation capability for the removal of 2,4-D. The rate constant (k) obtained for 2,4-D degradation using the 3D electrode (0.0228 min−1) was approximately 1.9 times higher than that of the traditional 2D electrode (0.0119 min−1). Moreover, the removal of COD on the G/β-PbO2 electrode followed pseudo-first order kinetics. The rate constant obtained for COD removal using the 3D electrode (0.0187 min−1) was observed to be approximately 1.8 times that of the traditional 2D electrode (0.0101 min−1). According to the results presented in Table S3,† the electrochemical degradation of the 2,4-D herbicide by the G/β-PbO2 electrode increased from 75.3 to 91.1% by an increase in the apparent rate constants from 0.0119 min−1 (2D process) to 0.0228 min−1 (3D process). In addition, COD removal efficiency increased from 70.2 to 87.6% by increasing the rate constants from 0.0101 (2D process) min−1 to 0.0187 min−1 (3D process), which it indicates the positive effect of the type of electrochemical process (2D and 3D) in degradation of 2,4-D and removal of COD (Fig. 4).
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Fig. 4 Kinetics of (a) 2,4-D degradation, (b) COD removal at the optimum conditions (herbicide initial concentration = 100 mg L−1, current density = 9 mA cm−2, pH = 5, Na2SO4 dosage = 1 g/250 cc). |
The higher degradation efficiency and COD removal efficiency using the G/β-PbO2 electrode can be related to the following reasons: (1) the presence of the high amount of coated PbO2 on graphite electrode that provides the greater sites for the production of hydroxyl radicals; (2) the lowest crystals size of β-PbO2 for G/β-PbO2 (Fig. S3†), which this is led to increasing the surface area, as a result, providing the high electro-generation efficiency of HO˙, which it offers better condition for degradation of pollutants.17,39 Furthermore, the half-life (t1/2) of herbicide degradation using 3D and 2D electrochemical was 31.5 and 58.2 min and its values for COD removal was 37.3 and 69.4 min, respectively (Table. S3†).
Footnote |
† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available. See DOI: 10.1039/c8ra08471h |
This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2018 |