Jessica
Honores
*ab,
Diego
Quezada
c,
María B.
Camarada
de,
Galo
Ramirez
ab and
Mauricio
Isaacs
*ab
aFacultad de Química y de Farmacia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Av. Vicuña Mackenna 4860, Macul, Santiago, Chile
bMillenium Institute on Green Ammonia as Energy Vector, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 7820436, Chile
cFacultad de Ingeniería, Instituto de Ciencias Aplicadas, Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Del Valle 534, Huechuraba, Santiago, Chile
dCluster of Excellence LivMatS @ FIT – Freiburg Center for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies, University of Freiburg, Georges-Koehler-Allee 105, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
eInorganic Functional Materials and Nanomaterials, Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry (IAAC), University of Freiburg, Albertstraße 21, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
First published on 12th June 2025
The electrochemical cycloaddition of carbon dioxide to epoxides was investigated using tetraazamacrocyclic metal complexes as electrocatalysts in ionic liquids under mild conditions. The process was carried out in the absence of additional organic solvents, employing Ni(cyclam)Cl2 and Co(cyclam)Cl2Cl as catalysts, which facilitated the activation of CO2. The electrosynthesis was conducted in 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium-based ionic liquids, which not only acted as solvents but also played a crucial role in promoting epoxide ring opening and stabilizing reaction intermediates. Electrochemical experiments using propylene oxide, styrene oxide, and epichlorohydrin demonstrated that the nature of the epoxide substituent significantly impacts the formation of cyclic carbonates. The highest yields were obtained when BMImBr was used as the reaction medium, while other ionic liquids such as BMImBF4 and BMImTFSI resulted in negligible conversion. Spectroelectrochemical studies provided additional insights into the reaction mechanism, confirming the role of halide anions in facilitating carbonate formation. Furthermore, density functional theory (DFT) calculations were performed to explore the interaction between Ni(cyclam) complexes and CO2. Theoretical results indicate that the trans-I isomer of [Ni(cyclam)]+ favors CO2 coordination and activation, which aligns with the experimental findings. Computational analysis also supported the importance of ionic liquid composition in stabilizing key reaction intermediates. This study highlights the potential of electrocatalytic methodologies for the sustainable conversion of CO2 into high-value chemicals, contributing to the development of greener and more efficient synthetic strategies.
Sustainability spotlightThe increasing concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere highlights the need for efficient carbon capture and utilization strategies. Electrochemical approaches offer a sustainable alternative by enabling the direct transformation of CO2 into value-added products under mild conditions. In this work, we investigate tetraazamacrocyclic complexes as electrocatalysts for the electrosynthesis of cyclic carbonates in ionic liquids, demonstrating enhanced catalytic performance and selectivity. The combination of experimental and theoretical studies provides key mechanistic insights into CO2 activation and carbonate formation, contributing to the design of more efficient and sustainable electrocatalytic systems. This study aligns with the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy), 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure), and 13 (Climate Action) by advancing energy-efficient CO2 conversion technologies and promoting greener synthetic methodologies. |
Electrochemical CO2 fixation has emerged as a promising route because it can directly couple renewable electricity to chemical synthesis under mild conditions, minimizing thermal inputs and aligning with the tenets of green chemistry.4–9 By modulating the applied potential, one can selectively activate CO2 toward diverse products without resorting to harsh reagents or extreme pressures.
Among the many CO2 conversion pathways, the cycloaddition of CO2 to epoxides to yield cyclic carbonates is particularly attractive. Cyclic carbonates serve as high-performance aprotic solvents, electrolytes in lithium-ion batteries, monomers for polycarbonate production, and fine-chemical intermediates in pharmaceutical syntheses.10–15 Their broad industrial utility underscores the importance of developing sustainable, scalable methods for their manufacture.
Traditional syntheses of cyclic carbonates often rely on phosgene or its equivalents (di- or polyols) under elevated temperatures and pressures, raising safety and environmental concerns.16–19 Photocatalytic systems—such as cobalt–phthalocyanine/TiO2 hybrids—have demonstrated near-quantitative yields under UV or visible irradiation,20 yet require specialized catalysts and light sources that can limit practicality.
Electrochemical approaches using simple salts (e.g. alkali halides, quaternary ammonium salts) or non-macrocyclic transition-metal complexes have shown proof-of-concept for CO2–epoxide cycloaddition, but often suffer from low selectivity, long reaction times (>10 h), and the need for large overpotentials (>−2.4 V vs. Ag/AgCl).16–26 Superbase-based deep eutectic solvents have improved yields at moderate temperatures but still fall short of fully ambient operation.27
Ionic liquids (ILs) offer a “green” reaction medium with negligible vapor pressure, wide electrochemical windows, and tunable solvation of charged intermediates. ILs such as BMImBr, BMImBF4, and BMImTFSI have repeatedly been shown to stabilize metal-alkoxide species and facilitate epoxide ring opening, dramatically enhancing cyclic-carbonate formation under mild potentials.18,28–38 In particular, halide-rich ILs (e.g. BMImBr) excel: the Br− anion both nucleophilically opens the epoxide and stabilizes ensuing intermediates, leading to higher yields than fluorinated or sulfonyl ILs.39,40
Despite these advances, two key gaps remain. First, most electrocatalytic systems to date employ non-macrocyclic catalysts, leaving the influence of well-defined ligand architectures on CO2 activation largely unexplored. Second, while individual reaction steps have been probed spectroelectrochemically or theoretically, a fully integrated experimental–computational mechanism under truly ambient temperature and pressure is still lacking.
Herein, we introduce tetraazamacrocyclic complexes—Ni(cyclam)Cl2 and Co(cyclam)Cl2Cl—as robust electrocatalysts for CO2 cycloaddition to epoxides in BMImBr. We combine cyclic voltammetry, controlled-potential electrolysis, FT-IR spectroelectrochemistry, and density-functional-theory (DFT) calculations to dissect the roles of metal isomerism, IL composition, applied potential, and substrate structure in driving high yields of propylene carbonate, styrene carbonate, and epichlorohydrin carbonate.41
Our integrated approach not only achieves quantitative conversion (100%) of propylene oxide at −1.8 V vs. Ag/AgCl and ambient conditions but also delivers a unified mechanistic framework for CO2 activation in macrocyclic metal complexes. These insights furnish design principles for next-generation electrocatalysts and IL media, advancing sustainable CO2 utilization in green chemistry and industrial processes.
In contrast, the cyclic voltammogram of the nickel complex (depicted in red) shows two well-defined redox processes with half-wave potentials (E1/2) at 0.42 V and −1.40 V. These correspond to the Ni(II)/Ni(III) and Ni(II)/Ni(I) redox couples, respectively.54 These results confirm the electrochemical accessibility of both oxidation and reduction states of the nickel center in this macrocyclic environment.
Upon the addition of propylene oxide to the solution containing Ni(cyclam)Cl2, the cyclic voltammogram (shown in green) remains similar in overall profile to that of the nickel complex alone. The redox couple around 0.47 V is only slightly shifted and displays a modest increase in current (∼1 μA), while the redox process at −1.4 V becomes more irreversible. Specifically, the anodic current decreases, and the cathodic current increases, suggesting a potential interaction between the reduced form of the complex and the epoxide. The broadening of this signal further supports the presence of such an interaction.
The effect of introducing carbon dioxide to the system is illustrated by the voltammogram shown in blue. At positive potentials, a shoulder emerges in both the anodic and cathodic waves, while at negative potentials, the previously reversible Ni(II)/Ni(I) redox couple is replaced by an irreversible process, peaking around −1.8 V. This transformation in electrochemical behavior indicates a significant interaction between the nickel complex and CO2 under reductive conditions.
Taken together, these observations suggest that the irreversible signal observed in the presence of CO2 likely corresponds to a catalytic reaction involving the activated CO2 species and the epoxide, mediated by the reduced form of the nickel cyclam complex. These findings highlight the potential of such macrocyclic systems for facilitating electrochemical transformations relevant to carbon capture and conversion in ionic liquid media.
For these experiments, 78 mmol of ionic liquid (15 mL) and 10 mmol of epoxide were used to obtain the corresponding carbonate, with the catalyst representing 1% of the epoxide concentration. Styrene oxide is less reactive than aliphatic epoxides due to resonance stabilization of its benzylic alkoxide intermediate, which both raises the barrier to ring opening and enables rearrangement pathways that yield benzaldehyde as a detectable by-product under our electrolysis conditions.
Table 1 presents the different parameters varied in each experiment, including time and applied potential varied in each experiment. Additionally, relevant data such as charge and yield are provided.
Exp. | Ionic liquid | Catalyst | Time (h) | Potential (volts) | Charge (coulomb) | F/mol | Yield % |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
a Reaction conditions: 1% cat mol., 78 mmol ionic liquid, 10 mmol styrene oxide. | |||||||
I | BMImBF4 | — | 6 | −1.4 | 22 | 2.3 × 10−2 | 0 |
II | BMImTFSI | — | 6 | −1.4 | 18 | 1.8 × 10−2 | 0 |
III | BMImBF4 | Ni(cyclam)Cl2 | 8 | −1.4 | 33 | 3.5 × 10−2 | 0 |
IV | BMImTFSI | Ni(cyclam)Cl2 | 8 | −1.4 | 29 | 3.0 × 10−2 | 0 |
V | BMImBF4 | Ni(cyclam)Cl2 | 24 | −1.4 | 108 | 1.1 × 10−1 | 0 |
VI | BMImTFSI | Ni(cyclam)Cl2 | 24 | −1.4 | 110 | 1.1 × 10−1 | 0.33 |
VII | BMImBF4 | Ni(cyclam)Cl2 | 24 | −1.8 | 105 | 1.1 × 10−1 | 0 |
VIII | BMImBr | Ni(cyclam)Cl2 | 24 | −1.8 | 171 | 1.77 × 10−1 | 59.3 |
A comparison of the yield values in experiments I and II indicates that no product is formed in the absence of the metal complex. This indicates that BMImBF4 under the studied conditions, does not exhibit catalytic activity for this type of reaction.
Electrolysis performed using the [Ni(cyclam)Cl2] complex as an electrocatalyst, applying the previously established CO2 reduction potential (−1.4 V) resulted in no conversion to the desired product. Although CO2 is activated for cycloaddition with the epoxide, the abundance of cations and anions in the reaction medium is insufficient to stabilize the epoxy ring opening. As a result, the cycloaddition reaction remains incomplete.
To assess whether the previously observed negative results are due to slow reaction kinetics, the effect of electrolysis time on conversion yield was investigated. As the reaction time increased from 8 to 24 hours, no detectable conversion to cyclic carbonate was observed in BMImBF4, while only trace amounts (0.33%) were detected in BMImTFSI. This comparison suggests that the absence of product is more likely related to the thermodynamic constraints of the reaction rather than a kinetic limitation.
Experiment VII was conducted by increasing the applied electrochemical potential during the electrolysis to −1.8 V to enhance carbon dioxide activation and promote its subsequent cycloaddition with the epoxide. However, the results remained negative, with 0% conversion observed.
It is important to highlight that the proposed mechanism for this type of reaction39 relies on the formation of an alkoxide intermediate through epoxide ring opening. The role of the ionic liquid as a stabilizer of the alkoxide species has been identified as a crucial step in the process. Previous reports39 suggest that the anion of the ionic liquid plays a more significant role than cation, with halides (e.g. Br−) demonstrating superior performance compared to fluorinated anions (BF4−).
A key finding was obtained in experiment VIII, where a conversion of 59.3% was achieved, confirming that the nature of the anion is critical for the successful electrosynthesis of cyclic carbonate from epoxides. This observation is in strong agreement with previously reported data.
Although our work focused on Br−, Gallardo-Fuentes et al. report that in BMImBr the CO2-propylene oxide cycloaddition yield reaches 72.8%, versus 41.1% in BMImBF4 and 26.1% in BMImTFSI.39 These trends correlate with the conjugate-acid pKa values (HBr ≈ −8, HBF4 ≈ −0.4, HTFSI ≈ 1.7), indicating that a more basic, nucleophilic anion promotes the key epoxide-opening step. By analogy, one would expect Cl− or I− to follow a similar pattern—driven by their respective acidities—though Br− offers the optimal balance of ring-opening ability and intermediate stabilization under our conditions.
To investigate the effect of epoxide structure on the electrosynthesis of cyclic carbonates, two additional epoxides-epichlorohydrin and propylene oxide- were used as starting materials. The results obtained from the series of three epoxides in the electrosynthesis of cyclic carbonates are presented below.
Table 2 presents the results of the controlled potential electrolysis (−1.8 V) of the different epoxides, the metal complex and carbon dioxide over a 24-hour period. In general, the results for the epoxide conversion are favorable in all cases, with conversion yields ranging from 17.7% to 100%. It is important to note that the conversion values reported correspond exclusively to the formation of cyclic carbonates, as indicated in the caption of Table 2. Although benzaldehyde was identified as a detectable by-product in reactions involving styrene oxide, it was not quantified in this study. Therefore, the reported data reflect selective product yields rather than total epoxide consumption.
Exp. | Complex | Epoxide | Charge/C | F/mol | %Conversion |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
a Reaction conditions: 1% cat. mol., 78 mmol ionic liquid, 10 mmol epoxide at 24 h of electrolysis at −1.8V vs. Ag/AgCl(sat). Epoxide 1: propylene oxide, 2: epichlorohydrin, 3: styrene oxide. | |||||
1 | — | 1 | 91 | 0.094 | 93.0% |
2 | Ni(cyclam)Cl2 | 290 | 0.30 | 100% | |
3 | [Co(cyclam)Cl2]Cl | 198 | 0.20 | 98.2% | |
4 | — | 2 | 90 | 0.093 | 90.7% |
5 | Ni(cyclam)Cl2 | 114 | 0.12 | 83.0% | |
6 | [Co(cyclam)Cl2]Cl | 176 | 0.18 | 99.2% | |
7 | — | 3 | 92 | 0.095 | 17.7% |
8 | Ni(cyclam)Cl2 | 171 | 0.18 | 59.3% | |
9 | [Co(cyclam)Cl2]Cl | 103 | 0.11 | 22.4% |
In the cases of electrolysis performed without the addition of a catalyst (Experiments 1, 4, and 7), propylene oxide and epichlorohydrin achieve yields higher than 90%, while styrene oxide reached only 17.7%. The lower reactivity of styrene oxide can be attributed to the stabilization of the benzyl alkoxide intermediate through resonance delocalization (Fig. 2). This effect reduces the nucleophilicity of the alkoxide oxygen, making it less reactive toward the cycloaddition of carbon dioxide, which explains the significantly lower yield observed compared to the other epoxides.
The results obtained for propylene oxide vary considerably in terms of the amount of charge developed. When Ni(cyclam)Cl2 (Experiment 1) complex is used, charge increases almost threefold from the blank (Experiment 1) and conversion rate increases from 93% to 100%. Considering the increase in charge and the slight increase in conversion rate; the reaction time could be too long in Experiment 2 and probably a complete conversion could be achieved at shorter times, which would further reinforce the idea that the nickel complex studied could be used as a catalyst for the cycloaddition of carbon dioxide to propylene oxide.
A further analysis of Experiment 2 and 3 shows that charge decreases from 290 to 198C when Ni(cyclam)Cl2 is replaced with [Co(cyclam)Cl2]Cl. As expected, the yield in Experiment 2 is slightly higher than Experiment 3, being in good concordance with a higher charge.
Epichlorohydrin electrolysis shows, in all three systems (Experiment 4, 5 and 6), conversions higher than 85%, reaching 99.2% in Experiment 6. Considering the electrocatalytic activity of the cobalt complex against the reduction of carbon dioxide and the intrinsic activity of the ionic liquid, the yield increase shown by Co(cyclam)+3 could be related to its ability to stabilize the alkoxide intermediary, rather than by the ability to activate carbon dioxide for its subsequent addition to epichlorohydrin.
Electrolysis carried out with styrene oxide shows significantly lower yields than the other two epoxides, being 17.7% when a catalyst is not used (Experiment 7) and 22.4% when the cobalt complex is used (Experiment 9). The most interesting result is obtained with the nickel catalyst, in which conversion increases to about 60%. It is also found that the oxide readily reacts with carbon dioxide, forming benzene acetaldehyde (see ESI†), whereby the low yield obtained by electrolysis without catalyst and with the cobalt complex could be explained by the generation of the previously mentioned by-products. On the other hand, the higher yield obtained with nickel catalyst suggests that it could have a higher specificity towards carbonate formation.25,55
Fig. 3 shows the FTIR/ATR spectra of the different species in solution during the electrosynthesis of propylene carbonate. A fast analysis of the spectra shows an evident increase in the bands at 1570, 1167 and 1466 cm−1 (♣), all of them appear as the most important changes in the spectra, and are associated to the solvent structure, particularly to deformation of the imidazolium ring.56,57 Increase in absorbance over time is related to polarization of the electrodes due to lack of convection in the spectroelectrochemical cell. Prior to application of −1.8 V vs. Ag/AgCl (black line) propylene oxide spectrum can be observed, showing characteristics bands at 825, 1265 and 1406 cm−1, corresponding to epoxide ring deformation,58 a band at 944 cm−1 can also be observed, related to –CH3 rocking.59
When the electrosynthesis starts, a series of changes can be observed all along the spectra. A first group of bands, associated to epoxide ring deformation (●), reduces its absorbance as time passes. As a result, bands are not observed in the last spectrum recorded, meaning that as the reaction takes place, the epoxide ring opens up, forming an alkoxide. A second group of bands can also be detected as the reaction takes place (♦), these signals can be assigned to the cyclic carbonate structure and are mainly associated to vibration modes of the cycle formed between the alkoxide and the activated carbon dioxide. A summary of the most significative FTIR bands can be found in Table 3.
cm−1 | Description | Ref. | cm−1 | Description | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
825 | C–O–C ring deformation | 58 | 1167 | Imidazole H–C–C & H–C–N bending | 56 and 57 |
871 | Symmetric carbonate ring vibration | 59 | 1265 | C–O–C ring deformation | 58 |
944 | –O–CO–C– symmetric stretching | 59 | 1406 | –O–CH2 wagging | 59 |
1002 | Alkoxide stretching | 60 | 1453 | Imidazole ring C–H stretch | 56 and 57 |
1056 | –C–O– ring stretch | 59 | 1466 | C–O–C ring deformation | 58 |
1104 | 1570 | Imidazole (ring stretching) | 56 and 57 |
Given that the reactivity of [Ni(cyclam)]+ in CO2 activation is highly dependent on its structural configuration, particular attention was paid to the equilibrium between its trans-I and trans-III isomers.
[Ni(cyclam)]+ can exist in equilibrium as trans-I and trans-III isomers. It is reported that in solution, 85% corresponds to the structure trans-III.61Fig. 4 shows the optimized geometries; according to our computational calculations, trans-III is approx. 7.3 kcal mol−1 more stable than structure trans-I, which has a distorted cycle configuration that influences the planarity of the system. Both structures were subsequently explored for the coordination of CO2.
![]() | ||
Fig. 4 Optimized geometries of the trans-I and trans-III isomers of [Ni(cyclam)]+. Color code: carbon atoms are gray, hydrogen in white, nitrogen in blue, and nickel in green. |
Different positions of the CO2 molecule, considering perpendicular and parallel orientation to the cycle, were built to study the interaction with [Ni(cyclam)]+. In both isomers, the most stable structures corresponded to the parallel alignment. Table 4 summarizes the Ebind of the most stable [Ni(cyclam)(CO2)]+ isomers with some critical bonds and angles. It is important to state that Ebind carries an error due to the non-consideration of explicit solvent, counteranions, and entropy. The relative energies between the two isomers are relevant to these calculations.
Isomer + CO2 | N–Ni (Å) | N–Ni–N angles (°) | Ni-CO2 (Å) | E bind (kJ mol−1) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
trans-I | 2.091 | 84.9 | 94.2 | 2.09 | −34.873 |
trans-III | 2.099 | 85.1 | 94.7 | 2.13 | −29.989 |
The most negative value and thus more favorable bonding interaction was detected for the structure trans-I (Fig. 5a). This evidence is consistent with the complexes formed with CO that prefer a trans-I isomer interaction than trans-III.62 In the case of CO2, the oxygen atoms are repelled from the amino groups of the cycle, leading to bending in the O–CO angle in approx. 35° from the planarity. Fig. 5c shows the most stable configuration of [Ni(cyclam)(CO2)]+trans-III, only 4.88 kJ mol−1 less stable than trans-I.
In trans-I, the carbon atom belonging to the CO2 molecule is located at 2.09 Å from nickel, and hydrogen bonds also mediate its interaction between the oxygen atoms of carbon dioxide and the amino groups of the cycle with an average distance of 2.48 Å. In the trans-III structure, the Ni-C distance is slightly longer (2.13 Å). The HOMO and LUMO frontier orbitals, alpha and beta, were plotted for both systems (Fig. 5b and d). The interaction between CO2 and the ligand is mainly stabilized through the LUMOs of CO2 and the β-HOMOs of [Ni(cyclam)]+, primarily the dz2 of the nickel-metal center. This evidence is in accordance with the work reported recently by Masood and coworkers,63 who described the [Ni(cyclam)(CO2)]+trans-III structure at a similar level of theory.
Once the CO2 is coordinated to [Ni(cyclam)]+, the complex can be attacked by high electronic density centers to produce new molecules like cyclic carbonates. In order to identify these zones, we calculated the dual descriptor of reactivity (DDR) on the trans-III structure, which is the most abundant in solution according to experimental reports.61 The DDR has been defined as a robust indicator of unambiguously nucleophilic and electrophilic sites.64 DDR is a local reactivity descriptor proposed by Morell and coworkers,65,66 and is described in terms of the derivative of the Fukui function concerning the number of electrons.67–69 As shown in Fig. 6a, the DDR plot shows two regions: the yellow zone where nucleophilic attacks can occur, and the red region, where electrophilic reactions can occur. The carbon atom located at the CO2 has an important density depletion; this electrophilic region can be attacked by a center with high availability of electron density.
![]() | ||
Fig. 6 (a) Dual descriptor of reactivity plot of [Ni(cyclam)(CO2)]+trans-III, (b) the optimized structure of BMImBr and propylene oxide, and its (c) electrostatic potential surface. |
According to the experimental evidence, ionic liquids play a key role in opening epoxide rings. The best performance system propylene oxide stabilized by BMImBr ionic liquid was optimized by DFT. Fig. 6b shows the optimized structure and relevant bond distances. The electrostatic potential surface (EPS) was also plotted for this system, reflecting a high-density accumulation in the oxygen atom of the propylene oxide, which can therefore act as a nucleophile and attack the activated carbon atom of the [Ni(cyclam)(CO2)]+ complex, achieving the conversion of epoxide into carbonate.
Considering the previously discussed evidence and relevant literature reports, a plausible electrosynthesis mechanism for cyclic carbonates is depicted in Fig. 7. In the first step, the carbon dioxide molecule is activated by the reduced metal complex. Subsequently, the activated CO2 reacts with the epoxide, which has been opened by the ionic liquid. The final step involves the addition of another CO2 molecule, leading to ring closure and formation of the desired product. It is worth noting that previous mechanistic studies on metal–salen complexes, particularly those involving Cr(III), have shown that the metal center can coordinate to the oxygen atom of the epoxide ring, thereby increasing the electrophilicity of the adjacent carbon and facilitating nucleophilic attack. This interaction has been proposed as a key step in asymmetric ring-opening reactions catalyzed by such complexes, contributing to both reactivity and selectivity.70
![]() | ||
Fig. 7 Mechanism for the electrosynthesis of cyclic carbonates in BMImBr using Ni (cyclam)Cl2 as catalyst in homogeneous medium. |
The conversion of propylene oxide to propylene carbonate reached 100% when Ni(cyclam)Cl2 was used as a catalyst, demonstrating that electrosynthesis under ambient conditions can provide an efficient alternative to traditional catalytic approaches. The proposed mechanism suggests that CO2 activation occurs through the electrochemical reduction of the metal center, followed by a nucleophilic attack from the epoxide. The presence of Br− anions in the ionic liquid facilitates the stabilization of the alkoxide intermediate, enabling the formation of the cyclic carbonate.
To further understand the catalytic process, density functional theory (DFT) calculations were performed, providing insight into the electronic structure of [Ni(cyclam)]+ complexes, the binding energy of CO2, and the differences in reactivity between trans-I and trans-III isomers. The results indicate that CO2 coordination is more favorable in the trans-I configuration, and that specific electronic properties of the complex play a key role in enhancing reactivity. Additionally, computational analysis of the interaction between the epoxide and the ionic liquid helped to rationalize the experimental observations regarding reaction efficiency and selectivity.
Overall, the combination of electrochemical, spectroelectrochemical, and computational studies provides a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing the electrocatalytic conversion of CO2 into cyclic carbonates. These findings contribute to the development of more sustainable methodologies for CO2 utilization, offering potential applications in green chemistry and industrial processes.
Footnote |
† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available. See DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/d5su00100e |
This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2025 |