Nilesh S. Rajpurohita,
Shruti Sinhaa,
Ramesh Potnuria,
Chinta Sankar Rao*a and
Harshini Dasari*b
aControl Systems & Machine Learning Research Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal-575025, India. E-mail: csrao@nitk.edu.in
bChemical Engineering Department, Manipal Institute of Technology Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Udupi, Karnataka 576104, India. E-mail: harshini.dasari@manipal.edu
First published on 11th August 2025
The growing accumulation of agricultural and plastic waste poses serious environmental challenges, necessitating sustainable and efficient valorization strategies. This study investigates the microwave-assisted catalytic co-pyrolysis of banana peels and polypropylene, using graphite as a susceptor and potassium hydroxide as a catalyst. Experiments were conducted by varying biomass and plastic quantities and microwave power levels to study their effects on product yields and thermal performance. The process effectively converted waste materials into valuable products, with oil yield increasing with microwave power and optimized biomass-to-plastic ratios. The rate of mass loss and heating rate were found to significantly influence overall conversion efficiency. A support vector regression (SVR) model was developed to predict yields based on input parameters, achieving a coefficient of determination ranging from 0.81 to 0.99, which demonstrates the reliability of machine learning in capturing complex thermochemical behavior. 3D plots illustrated the nonlinear effects of process variables on yields. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD) analyses of char confirmed functional groups and crystalline phases, suggesting its suitability for applications like adsorbents or catalysts. Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) analysis showed multilayer adsorption, while thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) highlighted distinct thermal degradation patterns of the feedstocks. These results affirm the promise of integrating experiments with ML for efficient waste-to-energy conversion.
With diminishing fossil fuel availability, researchers are exploring thermochemical routes to convert biomass waste into hydrocarbon fuels. Key methods include gasification, liquefaction, combustion, and pyrolysis.6 Among these, pyrolysis has received particular attention for its effectiveness in processing various biomass sources such as forestry residues, agricultural waste, and food industry by-products.7 Pyrolysis is a thermochemical process that involves the thermal decomposition of carbon-rich solid materials under an inert atmosphere, typically using gases such as nitrogen, argon, or helium. This method is widely employed for converting various types of waste, ranging from biomass and plastics to electronic waste, sewage sludge, and used tires, into valuable products.8 The technique is recognized for its rapid reaction kinetics, high conversion rates, and operational adaptability.9 Co-pyrolysis, a variation of this process, offers several benefits compared to traditional pyrolysis. Notably, it enables the simultaneous processing of different feedstocks, such as blending biomass with plastic, rubber, or other waste materials, leading to synergistic interactions that can improve both the yield and quality of the end products.10 This approach also broadens the scope for valorizing heterogeneous and otherwise challenging waste streams, thus enhancing material recovery and reducing environmental burden.11
Co-pyrolysis offers feedstock flexibility and process optimization, while catalysts enhance efficiency and selectivity by reducing unwanted byproducts.12 This makes it a promising approach for sustainable waste management and circular economy development.13 Microwave-assisted co-pyrolysis offers several advantages over conventional methods, including reduced reaction time,14 rapid and uniform heating,15 and improved control over temperature and heat distribution, enhancing product selectivity and minimizing byproducts.16 It also improves energy efficiency by directly heating feedstocks17 and facilitates better moisture removal, enhancing product quality.18,19 Microwave-assisted co-pyrolysis offers the flexibility to process a broad spectrum of biomass and plastic waste as feedstocks. The co-processing of biomass and plastics not only facilitates the simultaneous valorization of renewable and synthetic waste materials but also enhances overall waste management efficiency. This synergistic approach supports both environmental sustainability and resource recovery. In microwave-assisted systems, susceptors that efficiently absorb microwave energy are often incorporated to improve thermal distribution and promote uniform, localized heating within the reaction medium, thereby optimizing the pyrolytic conversion process.20 These susceptor materials have high dielectric properties, allowing them to absorb microwaves and convert them into heat. Examples of commonly used susceptor materials include carbonaceous materials like activated carbon, graphite, or carbon black.21 Potassium hydroxide (KOH) has been widely identified as an effective catalyst in microwave-assisted co-pyrolysis processes, offering significant improvements in both conversion efficiency and product yield.22 Its catalytic role is primarily attributed to its ability to enhance cracking and reforming reactions, thereby facilitating the breakdown of complex organic structures present in biomass and plastic feedstocks. Through these mechanisms, KOH promotes the formation of valuable gaseous, liquid, and solid products, contributing to the overall efficiency and selectivity of the pyrolytic process.23
For modeling and optimizing the complicated processes involved in biomass conversion, machine learning (ML) approaches provide useful tools. First, predictive models based on historical data and test results can be created using ML algorithms.24 The relationships between different input parameters, such as biomass composition, reaction conditions, and catalyst qualities, and the resulting yields of desired products can be captured by these models. Large datasets can be analyzed by ML to find patterns and connections that would not be visible using more conventional analytical techniques.25 This makes it possible for researchers to forecast yields with greater accuracy and to optimize process variables for optimal effectiveness.23 These algorithms are capable of modifying and optimizing reaction conditions in response to changing factors by continually observing and examining real-time data from the thermochemical system. Higher yields and less energy use are the results of this adaptive control's contribution to the maintenance of ideal conditions and improved overall performance.26
This study investigates the microwave-assisted co-pyrolysis of banana peel powder, a low-cost renewable agro waste, and polypropylene, a widely used plastic contributing to environmental pollution. Although co-pyrolysis has attracted considerable attention as a sustainable waste management strategy, limited studies have explored the combined valorization of fruit waste and synthetic polymers using microwave energy, particularly through integrating experimental techniques with machine learning based optimization. To address this research gap, the present work examines the influence of varying feedstock quantities and microwave power levels on process efficiency and product yields. Graphite and potassium hydroxide were used as a susceptor and a catalyst, respectively, to improve microwave absorption and catalytic reactivity. A design of experiments approach was employed to assess the combined effects of biomass-to-plastic ratios and operating power on the distribution of pyrolysis products. The solid, liquid, and gaseous products were carefully collected and analyzed. Key process parameters, including average heating rate, susceptor thermal efficiency, mass loss rate, and conversion, were evaluated using machine learning algorithms to identify optimal operating conditions. The solid char product was further characterized using Brunauer–Emmett–Teller surface area analysis, X-ray diffraction, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy to determine its structural and functional properties. This integrated approach offers new insights into the efficient utilization of organic and plastic waste through microwave-assisted co-pyrolysis supported by predictive modeling and material characterization.
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Fig. 1 (a) Banana peels powder biomass, (b) polypropylene plastic, (c) graphite susceptor, (d) KOH catalyst. |
A total of 13 sets of experiments were performed with biomass and plastic of varying weights of 5 g, 10 g, and 15 g, respectively. Also, microwave power was varied to 300 W, 450 W, and 600 W along the runs. Graphite susceptor and KOH catalyst were used in a fixed amount of 5 g each during the run. Microwave-assisted pyrolysis experiment was conducted for a total time of 10 min each. During the experiment, the temperature was noted at an interval of 30 seconds, and the average heating rate was calculated from it. After the experiment, the setup is allowed to cool. The initial weight of the setup and the final weight are noted down. In each experimental run, the residual solid remaining in the reactor, comprising both char and graphite, was quantified using an analytical balance. The net char yield was determined by deducting the initial mass of graphite from the total solid residue. The mass of bio-oil recovered post-condensation, consisting of both aqueous and organic components, was also measured. To isolate the organic constituents in the aqueous phase of the bio-oil, a solvent extraction was performed using dichloromethane. The quantity of non-condensable gases was estimated through a mass balance approach. Table 1 outlines the specific experimental parameters, including reaction duration (mins), biomass and plastic feedstock weights (g), applied microwave power (W), quantities of susceptor and catalyst (g), heating rate (°C min−1), and the resulting product yields char, gas, and oil along with overall conversion efficiency, mass loss rate, and susceptor thermal energy.
Expt. run | BP (g) | PP (g) | MP (W) | HR (°C min−1) | Char yield (%) | Oil yield (%) | Gas yield (%) | Conv. (%) | Rate of mass loss (wt% min−1) | Susceptor thermal energy (J g−1) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
a BP: banana peel, PP: polypropylene, MP: microwave power, HR: heating rate. | ||||||||||
1 | 5 | 5 | 450 | 39.2 | 32.2 | 35.7 | 32.0 | 67.8 | 6.7 | 465.7 |
2 | 15 | 5 | 450 | 50.4 | 35.0 | 33.8 | 31.1 | 64.9 | 6.5 | 631.5 |
3 | 5 | 15 | 450 | 45.3 | 37.7 | 26.6 | 35.7 | 62.30 | 6.2 | 556.3 |
4 | 15 | 15 | 450 | 45.7 | 23.6 | 37.9 | 38.3 | 76.3 | 7.6 | 561.8 |
5 | 5 | 10 | 300 | 44.8 | 44.7 | 27.1 | 28.1 | 55.2 | 5.5 | 526.9 |
6 | 15 | 10 | 300 | 32.8 | 60.1 | 20.3 | 19.4 | 39.8 | 3.9 | 376.3 |
7 | 5 | 10 | 600 | 55.3 | 15.9 | 50.2 | 33.8 | 84.0 | 8.4 | 687.0 |
8 | 15 | 10 | 600 | 66.0 | 20.7 | 27.0 | 52.2 | 79.2 | 7.9 | 880.2 |
9 | 10 | 5 | 300 | 37.6 | 41.2 | 26.4 | 32.3 | 58.7 | 5.8 | 432.5 |
10 | 10 | 15 | 300 | 28.3 | 60.9 | 18.0 | 20.9 | 39.0 | 3.9 | 315.6 |
11 | 10 | 5 | 600 | 59.2 | 12.4 | 31.2 | 56.4 | 87.6 | 8.7 | 751.0 |
12 | 10 | 15 | 600 | 54.4 | 21.0 | 38.7 | 40.2 | 79.0 | 7.9 | 691.0 |
13 | 10 | 10 | 450 | 61.2 | 34.4 | 22.4 | 43.0 | 65.5 | 6.5 | 775.5 |
Em = Ep × t | (1) |
Qsusceptor = ms × Cps × dT | (2) |
Qborosilicate = mB × CpB × dT | (3) |
![]() | (4) |
![]() | (5) |
![]() | (6) |
z = (x − μ)/σ | (7) |
Hyperparameter tuning for the SVR model was performed using the GridSearchCV method, which conducts an exhaustive search over a predefined grid of hyperparameters to identify the optimal combination.29 Common SVR hyperparameters include the regularization parameter (C), epsilon-tube width (ε), and Kernel type. GridSearchCV evaluates each combination using K-fold cross-validation, where the dataset is split into K folds: the model is trained on K-1 folds and validated on the remaining one, rotating this process K times. The average performance metric (e.g., mean squared error) across all folds determines the best configuration. The optimal model and corresponding hyperparameters are accessible via the best_estimator_ and best_params_ attributes of the GridSearchCV object.30 This approach enables systematic and robust tuning of SVR hyperparameters, improving the model's generalization to unseen data.31 The model is evaluated based on the coefficient of determination (R2)
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The steps involved in SVR modeling are given as
1. Data collection
Experimental data from microwave-assisted co-pyrolysis of BP and PP were generated in the laboratory.
2. Data preprocessing
Features (biomass weight, plastic weight, and microwave power) and target variable (e.g., oil yield, char yield, gas yield, etc.) were extracted.
Feature scaling was applied using StandardScaler to normalize the data.
3. Model selection
Support Vector Regression (SVR) was selected based on its suitability for small datasets and its robustness in handling nonlinear regression problems.
4. Train-test split
The dataset was split into 80% training and 20% testing using a fixed random seed to ensure reproducibility.
5. Hyperparameter optimization
A GridSearchCV method with 4-fold cross-validation was used to identify the optimal values of SVR parameters:
i. Kernel function: rbf
ii. Regularization parameter (C)
iii. Kernel coefficient (gamma)
6. Model training
The optimized SVR model was trained using the scaled training dataset.
7. Model evaluation
The model performance was evaluated using the following metrics
i. R2 (Co-efficient of Determination)
ii. MAE (Mean Absolute Error)
iii. MAPE (Mean Absolute Percentage Error)
iv. RMSE (Root Mean Squared Error)
8. Visualization
A parity plot (actual vs. predicted values) was generated to visualize model accuracy and agreement.
Model results were analyzed to understand prediction trends using 3D-surface plots.
Sr. no. | Ultimate analysis (wt%) | Proximate analysis (wt%) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | C | H | S | O | FC | VM | Ash | MC | ||
a M-moisture, VM-volatile matter, FC-fixed carbon, A-ash content, C-carbon, H-hydrogen, N-nitrogen, S-sulphur, O-oxygen. | ||||||||||
1 | Banana peels | 1.2 | 44.8 | 8.4 | 0 | 45.3 | 23.1 | 71.5 | 4.7 | 0 |
2 | Polypropylene | 0 | 84.6 | 7.0 | 0 | 8.3 | 5.3 | 93.7 | 0 | 1 |
The ultimate analysis of banana peels shows that it has a high amount of carbon content at 44.87 wt% and very low nitrogen content at 1.28 wt%. Sulphur content in biomass is not detected and biomass has around 45.38% oxygen content. Nitrogen (N) is a vital element in biomass, as it contributes to the protein content. The relatively low nitrogen content in banana peels indicates limited protein content, consistent with the biomass's non-proteinaceous nature. The high carbon and oxygen content suggests that banana peels primarily consist of carbohydrates, cellulose, and hemicellulose, which are typical constituents of plant material.33
For polypropylene, it is observed that the carbon content is very high (84.6 wt%) and the hydrogen content is 7.03 wt%. % with no detection of nitrogen and sulfur content. The absence of detectable nitrogen and sulfur indicates that polypropylene is primarily composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. This composition is consistent with the elemental makeup of most hydrocarbon-based polymers.34 Proximate analysis of polypropylene gives a higher amount of VM present with very little amount of moisture content (MC) and FC. Polypropylene's high VM content indicates that it is highly combustible and can release a substantial amount of energy when burned. The absence of ash content suggests that polypropylene leaves behind virtually no residue upon combustion, which can be advantageous in applications where minimal ash production is desired, such as in certain industrial processes. The low MC is favorable for applications involving combustion or heat treatment.35
Similarly, Fig. 3 shows the TGA analysis of polypropylene plastic. A plastic sample of 22.4 mg was used, which was heated from 50 °C to 900 °C at a heating rate of 50 °C min−1. It can be observed that there is a sudden loss in the weight of the sample in the temperature range of 425 to 520 °C, where around 95 wt% of the weight is lost. Polypropylene is a thermoplastic polymer composed of repeating propylene units. When subjected to elevated temperatures, thermoplastic polymers typically undergo thermal degradation, which involves the breaking of chemical bonds within the polymer chains.39 The fact that around 95% of the weight is lost in this temperature range indicates that the thermal decomposition of polypropylene is quite extensive. During this process, the polymer chains break down into smaller fragments, resulting in the release of volatile products, such as hydrocarbons and gases, which are responsible for the mass loss.39 After the significant mass loss in this temperature range, there is typically a residue left behind. This residue may contain char or non-volatile compounds that are more thermally stable than the original polypropylene.
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Fig. 4 Parity plots of (a) oil yield, (b) char yield, (c) gas yield, (d) avg. heating rate, (e) conversion, (f) rate of mass loss, (g) susceptor thermal energy (%). |
Also, it is observed that increasing the amount of plastic while keeping biomass quantity low leads to an overall increase in oil yield. Polypropylene plastic has good dielectric properties, meaning it can efficiently absorb microwave energy and convert it into heat. By increasing the amount of plastic, more microwave energy is absorbed, resulting in higher temperatures within the system. This enhanced heating efficiency can promote the pyrolysis of both the plastic and the banana peel biomass, leading to increased oil yield. The combination of polypropylene plastic and banana peel biomass in microwave co-pyrolysis can create synergistic effects. The plastic acts as a heating source, providing additional thermal energy to the system. This extra heat can help in the decomposition of the biomass, releasing more volatile compounds, including oil. The interaction between the plastic and the biomass can enhance the overall pyrolysis process, leading to a higher oil yield compared to using biomass alone. Also, higher amount of both biomass and plastic leads to higher oil yield because when higher amounts of biomass and plastic are present, there is an increased surface area for energy absorption, resulting in higher heat generation within the system. This elevated temperature facilitates the pyrolysis process and enhances the release of oil from the biomass.41
Fig. 5(b) shows 3-D plots for oil yield variation with changes in biomass quantity and microwave power. It can be observed that with low biomass quantity, when microwave power is increased, it leads to an increase in oil yield. Increasing the microwave power results in higher energy input into the system. This increased energy generates higher temperatures within the reactor. With low biomass quantity, there is less material to absorb the heat, allowing more energy to be concentrated on the available biomass. The higher temperatures facilitate more efficient pyrolysis reactions, leading to an increased oil yield. Also, with higher biomass quantity, when microwave power is increased it leads to an increase in oil yield till 450 W and then there is a decrease in oil yield till 600 W power. With higher biomass quantity, more material needs to be heated to achieve the desired pyrolysis temperature. Increasing the microwave power can initially improve the heating efficiency and accelerate the heating process. This leads to a higher oil yield as the biomass reaches the optimal temperature for co-pyrolysis. However, at higher microwave power levels beyond 450 W, the residence time might be insufficient for complete pyrolysis. This can result in incomplete conversion of the biomass and a subsequent decrease in oil yield. As the biomass quantity increases, the heat transfer within the reactor can become less efficient. The larger biomass mass may impede the uniform distribution of heat, resulting in temperature gradients and localized overheating. This uneven heat distribution can lead to incomplete pyrolysis and reduced oil yield. At higher microwave power levels, the heat transfer limitations may become more pronounced, causing a decrease in oil yield.42
Fig. 5(c) shows 3-D plots for oil yield variation with changes in plastic quantity and microwave power. Here, as microwave power is increased with low plastic quantity, oil yield is also increased. The microwave power increases, resulting in higher energy input into the system. This increased energy generates higher temperatures within the reactor, promoting more efficient pyrolysis reactions. With a low PP plastic quantity, more of the microwave energy is absorbed by the biomass, leading to higher temperatures within the biomass and enhanced thermal decomposition. The higher temperatures facilitate the release of oil from the biomass, resulting in an increased oil yield. Higher microwave power levels result in more rapid heating of the biomass. This rapid heating increases the reaction rates within the biomass, accelerating the decomposition of organic compounds and the release of oil. The higher reaction rates contribute to an increased oil yield in microwave co-pyrolysis.43 Increasing microwave power from 300 W to 600 W with a higher amount of PP plastic leads to a significant increase in oil yield. Increasing the microwave power results in higher energy input into the system, leading to increased heating. With a higher amount of PP plastic, there is a greater capacity to absorb and convert microwave energy into heat. This enhanced heating raises the temperature within the reactor, promoting more efficient pyrolysis reactions. The higher temperatures facilitate the thermal decomposition of the biomass, resulting in an increased oil yield.
With a low banana peel biomass quantity, the available biomass material for pyrolysis is relatively limited. As a result, the remaining material, which includes polypropylene plastic, becomes a major contributor to the char yield. The higher microwave power levels enhance the conversion of the remaining material into char, leading to a significant increase in char yield in microwave co-pyrolysis (Fig. 5(e)). Polypropylene plastic, when exposed to high temperatures, undergoes thermal degradation and carbonization. Increasing the microwave power facilitates the carbonization of the plastic, leading to the formation of char. The presence of polypropylene plastic, even in low quantities, contributes to the overall carbon content available for char formation. The higher microwave power levels enhance the carbonization process and result in a higher char yield.40 It can be observed that with high biomass content as microwave power is increased it leads to lower char yield. At higher microwave power levels, the availability of oxygen in the system may become limited, increasing in the carbon gasification process. The high temperature and the presence of volatile compounds promote the reaction between carbon and available oxygen, leading to the formation of carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO) gases. This gasification process consumes the carbon content, reducing the amount of carbon available for char formation and resulting in a decrease in char yield. With a high biomass quantity, the residence time of the material within the reactor may be relatively short, especially at higher microwave power levels. The limited residence time may not allow sufficient time for complete pyrolysis and char formation. Instead, the biomass undergoes partial decomposition, yielding more volatile compounds and reducing the char yield.
In the absence of a significant PP plastic quantity, the char yield is primarily influenced by the carbon content present in the biomass material. With a low PP plastic quantity, a larger proportion of the carbon content from the biomass contributes to the formation of char. The increased microwave power levels enhance the thermal decomposition of the biomass, resulting in a higher production of char.45 With a low PP plastic quantity, the contribution of the plastic material to the overall char formation may be relatively minimal. The absence of a significant PP plastic quantity allows biomass to play a more dominant role in char formation. The increased microwave power levels mainly affect the thermal decomposition of the biomass, leading to an increase in char yield, as observed in Fig. 5(f). It is also observed that with higher plastic content as microwave power is increased from 300 W to 600 W, there is a decrease in char yield.
Low microwave power levels may result in longer residence times or insufficient temperatures for complete pyrolysis. Incomplete pyrolysis means that a portion of the biomass and plastic materials remain unconverted, resulting in lower gas yield. With a higher banana peel biomass quantity, the available microwave energy may be further distributed among the increased material, reducing the energy available for each component's efficient pyrolysis. This incomplete pyrolysis can contribute to the observed decrease in gas yield, as shown in Fig. 5(h). Increasing microwave power with low or high amounts of biomass leads to higher gas yield as there is more heating of feedstock at higher power. Similarly, Fig. 5(i) shows that with an increase in microwave power gas yield increases significantly. Higher microwave power levels generate more intense heat within the reactor. This elevated temperature promotes the rapid breakdown of biomass and plastic materials, resulting in a greater release of volatile gases. The increased energy input enables more efficient conversion of the organic compounds into gases, leading to a significant increase in gas yield.41
In this study, the average heating rate was calculated from the experimental readings and then this data was used to develop an SVR model to predict the average heating rate. It can be observed in Fig. 4(d) that the model developed was able to predict the average heating rate with high accuracy and an R2 value of 0.98.
The percentage of conversion was calculated to find the amount of initial mass of feedstock converted to oil and gas. The percentage of conversion gives useful information about the pyrolysis process's efficiency and the extent to which starting materials are turned into useable products. Fig. 4(e) shows the R2 plot for the prediction of the percentage of conversion by using the SVR model. It can be observed that the model predicted the percentage of conversion with a high R2 value of 0.99. Monitoring and optimizing the percentage of conversion in microwave co-pyrolysis can aid in understanding and improving overall process efficiency, selecting the best conditions for targeted product yields, and assessing the possibility of resource recovery from biomass and plastic waste.
In microwave co-pyrolysis, the rate of mass loss (wt% min−1) refers to the rate at which the overall mass of the biomass and plastic components reduces overtime during the pyrolysis process. It is the weight percentage of material lost per unit of time, and it provides information about the kinetics of the co-pyrolysis reaction. The rate of mass loss is frequently used to evaluate and compare the pyrolysis behavior of various biomass-plastic combinations and to optimize process settings for desired results. It assists in comprehending the time-dependent changes in material composition as well as the efficiency of conversion into various products such as gases, liquids, and solids. Insights into the pyrolysis kinetics, comparing different experimental conditions, and assessing the appropriateness of microwave co-pyrolysis as a viable waste-to-energy conversion technology can be found by analyzing the rate of mass loss. Fig. 4(f) gives an R2 plot of the rate of mass loss predicted by the SVR model with an R2 value of 0.98.
The susceptor thermal energy has a direct impact on the heating efficiency and temperature distribution within the reactor. By precisely identifying the thermal energy of the susceptor, researchers may optimize its design and features to maximize microwave energy absorption and conversion into thermal energy. This optimization improves heating uniformity, reaction speeds, and control over the pyrolysis process parameters. The susceptor thermal energy has a direct impact on the heating efficiency and temperature distribution within the reactor. By precisely identifying the thermal energy of the susceptor, researchers may optimize its design and features to maximize microwave energy absorption and conversion into thermal energy. This optimization improves heating uniformity, reaction speeds, and control over the pyrolysis process parameters. The determination of the susceptor thermal energy allows for a complete investigation of the heating profile within the reactor. It aids in the detection of temperature gradients, hot patches, and uneven heating. This knowledge can be used to fine-tune the location and distribution of the susceptor material, resulting in more uniform and controlled heating. A greater understanding of the heating profile allows for more exact temperature control, allowing the pyrolysis conditions to be optimized for desired product yields and compositions. The SVR model was developed to predict the susceptor thermal energy (J g−1) and it predicted the output with an R2 value of 0.81 as shown in Fig. 4(g).
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The diffraction patterns, shown in Fig. 7, provide insights into the crystalline changes occurring during pyrolysis and help assess char quality for process optimization.49 XRD analysis of char obtained from microwave-assisted co-pyrolysis involves exposing the samples to X-ray radiation and examining the resulting diffraction patterns. The presence of sharp peaks in the XRD spectra indicates the existence of crystalline phases within the char structure.50 These crystalline phases could be mineral residues from the original biomass or other compounds that have undergone crystallization during the co-pyrolysis process. The sharpness of the peaks indicates that the atoms or molecules within these crystalline phases are arranged in a highly ordered and repetitive manner.51 As observed from Fig. 7 that prominent peaks were observed at 2θ = 26.6°, 28.5°, and 32.5°, and these were identified using standard reference patterns from the Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards (JCPDS) database.52 Specifically, the peak at 26.6° corresponds to the (002) plane of graphitic carbon (JCPDS no. 41-1487), indicating the development of ordered, turbostratic graphite-like structures. The peak at 28.5° is attributed to calcite (CaCO3) (JCPDS no. 05-0586), while the peak at 32.5° corresponds to potassium carbonate (K2CO3) (JCPDS no. 01-077-1086).53 These mineral phases likely originated from the inorganic constituents of the biomass or formed through thermally induced reactions during the pyrolysis process.
The BET equation describes this adsorption process:
![]() | (10) |
BET surface area analysis of char produced from microwave-assisted co-pyrolysis of biomass and plastic was conducted using the Autosorb iQ Station 1 analyzer. The results of the multipoint BET analysis for the sample with the highest char yield are given in Table 3. The nitrogen adsorption isotherm exhibits a gradual increase in adsorbed volume at low relative pressures, indicative of monolayer formation. Specifically, monolayer adsorption is observed at a relative pressure (P/Po) of 0.0505, corresponding to an adsorbed volume of 0.2592 cm3 g−1. As the relative pressure increases, the adsorption curve shows a steeper increase, suggesting multilayer adsorption behavior. Across the measured range of relative pressures (0.005 to 0.3), the adsorbed volume increases from 0.25 cm3 g−1 to 1.74 cm3 g−1, highlighting the porous nature of the char and its capacity for multilayer adsorption. These results provide key insights into the surface characteristics of the char, which are important for evaluating its suitability in adsorption and catalytic applications.
Relative pressure (P/P0) | Volume @STP cm3 g−1 | 1/[W((Po/P) − 1)] 1 g−1 |
---|---|---|
5.04672 × 10−2 | 0.2592 | 1.6407 × 102 |
1.12661 × 10−1 | 0.6257 | 1.6235 × 102 |
1.75537 × 10−1 | 0.9078 | 1.8765 × 102 |
2.37866 × 10−1 | 1.3838 | 1.8047 × 102 |
3.00196 × 10−1 | 1.7407 | 1.9178 × 102 |
Supplementary information is available. See DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/d5ra03913d.
This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2025 |