Yiding
Wang
ab,
Runyao
Zhao
ab,
Yunpeng
Liu
c,
Fengtao
Zhang
b,
Yuepeng
Wang
ab,
Zhonghua
Wu
bc,
Buxing
Han
ab and
Zhimin
Liu
*ab
aBeijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, CAS Laboratory of Colloid and Interface and Thermodynamics, CAS Research/Education Center for Excellence in Molecular Sciences, Center for Carbon Neutral Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China. E-mail: liuzm@iccas.ac
bUniversity of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
cInstitute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
First published on 8th February 2024
For CO2 electroreduction (CO2ER) to C2 compounds, it is generally accepted that the formation of ethylene and ethanol shares the same intermediate, *HCCOH. The majority of studies have achieved high faradaic efficiency (FE) towards ethylene, but faced challenges to get high ethanol FE. Herein, we present an alkyl sulfonate surfactant (e.g., sodium dodecyl sulfonate, SDS) mediated CO2ER to a C2 product over an in situ generated Cu catalyst (Cu@SDS) from SDS-modified Cu(OH)2. It achieves the CO2ER to ethylene as the sole C2 product at low applied voltages with a FE of 55% at −0.6 V vs. RHE and to ethanol as the main product at potentials ≥0.7 V with a maximum FE of 64% and a total C2 FE of 86% at −0.8 V, with a current density of 231 mA cm−2 in a flow cell. Mechanism investigation indicates that SDS modifies the oxidation state of the in situ formed Cu species in Cu@SDS, thus tuning the catalyst activity for CO2ER and lowering the C–C coupling energy barrier; meanwhile, it tunes the adsorption mode of the *HCCOH intermediates on the catalyst, thus mediating the selectivity of CO2ER towards C2 products.
It is generally accepted that the formation of ethylene and ethanol shares the same intermediate, *HCCOH, which undergoes hydrogenation and deoxygenation to form ethanol and ethylene, respectively.15,16 Therefore, catalysts that can enhance hydrogenation while suppressing deoxygenation of *HCCOH are highly desirable for CO2ER to ethanol. Several strategies have been reported to prepare such catalysts, for example, control over copper species,11 surface modification17–19 and addition of dopants to catalysts.12,13
Surfactants are commonly employed as protective agents20 or templates21 in catalyst synthesis processes. Recently, it has been reported that the surfactant decorated on the catalyst surface can effectively tune both the selectivity of CO2ER to desired products and current density.22,23 These surfactant-induced effects are mainly attributed to the following aspects: tuning the hydrophilicity and charge distribution of the catalyst,23 enriching reactants on the catalyst surface,24 and modifying electrode–electrolyte interfaces.25,26 Though some progress has been made, surfactant-mediated CO2ER is still seldom reported.
In this work, we present an alkyl sulfonate surfactant (e.g., sodium dodecyl sulfonate, SDS) mediated CO2ER to ethanol, which is achieved over Cu@SDS derived from electroreduction of SDS modified Cu(OH)2 (Cu(OH)2@SDS) in the CO2ER process. The in situ generated Cu@SDS exhibited high performance for CO2-to-ethanol conversion in 1.0 M KOH electrolyte, affording an ethanol faradaic efficiency (FE) of 64% and a total C2 product FE of 86%, with a current density of 231 mA cm−2 in a flow cell. This catalyst showed much higher activity for catalysing CO2ER than the OHDCu catalyst originated from reduction of Cu(OH)2. It was found that the SDS-functionalized Cu species derived from electroreduction of Cu(OH)2@SDS are responsible for the generation of ethanol in the CO2ER process, while the in situ formed Cu species without SDS could afford only ethylene as the C2 compound. From the results of density functional theory (DFT) calculations, not only CO adsorbance is enhanced, but C–C coupling is also facilitated in the presence of SDS. Importantly, the strong hydrogen bonding interaction between the SDS anion and *HCCOH suppresses the deoxygenation of *HCCOH over Cu@SDS, thus producing ethanol.
A LSV test was carried out under the conditions that CO2 was passed at a sweep rate of 10 mV s−1. The products from CO2ER were analyzed by gas chromatography (GC) and 1H NMR analysis over a certain electric amount of 100C at various potentials. The FE of products was calculated as follows:
FE = (amount of M × n × F/C) × 100% |
In comparison, Cu@SDS showed much higher FE of C2 chemicals and lower hydrogen FE than OHDCu at the same applied voltages, suggesting that SDS promoted CO2ER and efficiently inhibiting the generation of H2. As mechanically mixed Cu(OH)2 and SDS were tested for CO2ER, no ethanol was obtained (Fig. S14†). From the above findings, it can be deduced that SDS plays a key role in mediating the selectivity of CO2ER and the SDS-functionalized Cu species are responsible for the generation of ethanol.
For comparison, sodium octyl sulfonate (SOS) functionalized Cu(OH)2 was prepared and applied in CO2ER. Ethanol was obtained as expected at the suitable applied voltages, but in a smaller amount compared to the case using Cu@SDS as the catalyst under the same conditions (Fig. S18†). This indicates that SOS plays a similar role to SDS in mediating the production of C2 products from CO2ER. The FE differences induced by these two surfactants may be ascribed to the discrepancy in modification on the Cu catalysts and to the difference in their interactions with the *HCCOH intermediate.
To assess the stability of Cu@SDS, continuous CO2 reduction was conducted at a constant current of 100 mA cm−2. As depicted in Fig. 1e, no significant decrease in ethanol FE or change in potential was observed as the reaction was performed for 18 h, except for minor fluctuations caused by periodic bubble formation. This indicates the excellent stability of Cu@SDS for CO2ER.
From scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observation, it is clear that Cu@SDS (Fig. S20d†) and OHDCu (Fig. S21†) appeared as similar irregular nanoparticles with size around 100 nm, different from the nanorod-like morphology of Cu(OH)2@SDS and OHDCu (Fig. S2 and S3†). The X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of Cu@SDS and OHDCu display two peaks at 43.3° and 50.4° (Fig. 2a) ascribed to the Cu (111) and (200) crystal planes, which confirms the formation of metallic Cu in these two samples (Fig. S32†).27 Extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) analysis also confirmed the formation of metallic Cu with a Cu–Cu coordination environment in the Cu@SDS sample.
To explore the structural changes of Cu(OH)2@SDS and the role of SDS in the CO2ER process, in situ measurements were conducted under the same conditions as the CO2ER tests.28 Considering that the oxidation state of Cu species can significantly affect their performance for CO2ER,29,30in situ X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) analysis was performed to probe the oxidation states of Cu in CO2ER (Fig. 2c and d, S22†).31 From the XANES spectra (Fig. 2c), it is obvious that the oxidation states of Cu species in OHDCu obtained at various potentials were higher than that of Cu foil and gradually came close to that of Cu foil as the applied potential increased. This means that the Cu species in the in situ formed catalysts exhibit a tunable oxidation state related to the applied potentials, meaning that they have tunable activity in the CO2ER process. The presence of SDS can remarkably influence the oxidation state of the reduced Cu species, confirmed by the fact that the Cu species in Cu@SDS showed an even higher oxidation state compared to those in OHDCu at an applied potential of −0.8 V. The higher oxidation state induced by the SDS molecule could enhance CO adsorption and thus facilitate C–C coupling,30 inducing a higher C2/C1 ratio on Cu@SDS than that on OHDCu (Fig. S13†). However, at −0.9 V, the Cu species in Cu@SDS and OHDCu exhibit nearly identical oxidation states (Fig. S22†), suggesting that some SDS molecules may desorb from Cu@SDS under more negative potentials. This may partially explain why the resultant Cu@SDS catalyst showed lower ethanol FE at −0.9 V than at −0.8 V. Furthermore, charge density difference calculations32 demonstrated a clear charge loss of Cu in the presence of the sulfonate anion (Fig. S23†), leading to a higher Cu oxidation state, which supports the XANES analysis results.
The in situ Raman spectroscopy and in situ Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy analyses provide information on the intermediates of CO2ER on the catalysts. In the in situ Raman spectra of CO2ER carried out at −0.8 V (Fig. 3a), apart from the D band and G band induced by the carbon paper substrate, the ν(Cu–CO)33 peak appeared at 354 cm−1 for OHDCu, while it shifted to 362 cm−1 for Cu@SDS, indicating a stronger interaction between Cu@SDS and the CO intermediate, which is also supported by DFT calculations. The calculated bond length of Cu–CO on Cu@SDS (1.82 Å) is shorter than that on OHDCu (1.85 Å) (Fig. 3c and d). The suitable Cu–CO bonding interaction is favorable to carbon–carbon coupling, which can explain why Cu@SDS showed higher C2 FE than OHDCu (Fig. 1b and c), in line with XANES analysis.
In situ FTIR analysis provides information on the adsorption of CO2 and intermediates of CO2ER on the catalysts. In the in situ FTIR spectra of CO2ER over Cu@SDS (Fig. 3d), the peak at 1398 cm−1 corresponds to the chemisorbed *CO2 species.34 In the case of using OHDCu as the catalyst, this peak appears at 1394 cm−1 (Fig. 3f). These findings indicate that the presence of SDS in Cu@SDS may impact the adsorption mode of CO2 on the catalyst. The corresponding in situ Raman spectra (Fig. 2a) show identical information, in which the peak assigned to the adsorbed CO2− species on Cu@SDS shifted to 1557 cm−1 from 1545 cm−1 for those on OHDCu. The gradually increased intensity of the band at 1398 cm−1 in the in situ FTIR spectra indicates that more CO2 molecules are chemically adsorbed and activated as the applied potentials increase, which is favorable to CO2ER.
Another characteristic band corresponding to the stretching vibration of the CO band in the *COOH intermediate35 appears at 1258 and 1256 cm−1 using Cu@SDS and OHDCu catalysts, respectively, which also reflects the influence of SDS on the properties of the catalyst. The peak at 1197 cm−1 is attributed to the stretching vibration of C–OH from the *HCCOH intermediate,36 while it appears at 1182 cm−1 when using OHDCu as the catalyst. This indicates that Cu@SDS provides a microenvironment to make the C–OH bond in *HCCOH become stronger, probably due to the hydrogen bonding interaction between the SDS anion and hydroxyl H of this intermediate. The enhanced C–OH bond strength may inhibit the deoxygenation of the *HCCOH intermediate upon further reduction, thus producing ethanol. The presence of bands at 2960, 2922, and 2853 cm−1 corresponding to the asymmetric stretching vibration of –CH3 and –CH2–, and the symmetric stretching of –CH2–, respectively (Fig. S25†), provides direct evidence of the evolution of ethanol.
To further explore the electrochemical performance differences between Cu@SDS and OHDCu, density functional theory (DFT) calculations were conducted using Cu(111) and propyl sulfonate (PS, Cu(111)@PS) as a substitute for SDS to save computational resources, considering that from the third carbon atom to the tail end, charge distribution is similar (Fig. S11†) and the distance to all intermediates are far enough to ignore the interaction. Firstly, the stability of SDS on the Cu(111) surface was considered by introducing auxiliary atoms. After two auxiliary atoms were introduced, the average bond length of Cu–O coordinated between directly adsorbed O from SDS and the nearest three Cu atoms is not obviously changed (Fig. S24†), proving the stability of the structure. As shown in Fig. 4a and b, once the first CO molecule is adsorbed on Cu(111)@PS, another CO molecule is more preferable to be adsorbed on the surface, than on bare Cu(111), exhibiting a 2.9 eV lower reaction energy (*CO + CO → *CO + *CO). The result gives proof that in the presence of SDS, the surface coverage of CO could be higher, benefitting the C–C coupling procedure. The C–C coupling reaction barrier (*CO + *CO → *COCOH) is also lowered from 1.04 to 0.64 eV, in accordance with the facilitated C2 products shown in Fig. 1b and c.
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Fig. 4 Free energy diagram for ethanol and ethylene on Cu(111)@PS (a) and Cu(111) (b). (c) DFT calculated reaction energies of the ethylene pathway (*HCCOH to *CCH) and the ethanol pathway (*HCCOH to *HCCHOH), and their deviation on Cu(111)@PS and Cu(111). Illustration of calculation models and reaction pathways on Cu(111)@PS (d) and Cu(111) (e). See full version picture of structures in Fig. S25 and S27.† Cu, O, C, S, and H are illustrated as orange, red, gray, yellow and white balls, respectively. |
To explain the selectivity difference between ethanol and ethylene, the intermediate *HCCOH was taken as the starting point for the bifurcation towards ethylene and ethanol.37 The reaction energies from *HCCOH to *HCCHOH and to *CCH were calculated and plotted in Fig. 4c. Obviously, the pathway to ethanol through *HCCOH (*HCCOH → *HCCHOH) is more energetically favorable on Cu(111) @PS (−0.5 eV) than on bare Cu(111) (−0.34 eV), which supports that Cu@SDS can achieve CO2ER to ethanol. However, the subsequent step (*CHCHOH → *CH2CHOH or *CCH → *CCH2) is energy demanding, and for Cu@PS, the reaction energy for the former one is higher (2.87 eV over 2.45 eV), resulting in similar production distribution at −0.5 V and −0.6 V. Once the energy demand is satisfied, the ethanol pathway will be unchoked and more preferred. The energy deviation between the ethanol and ethylene formation (energy difference between reactions *HCCOH → *HCCHOH and *HCCOH → *CCH) directly affects CO2ER selectivity to these two compounds. A more negative value of −0.66 eV was obtained for PS@Cu(111), compared to that for Cu(111) (−0.08 eV), which indicates that PS@Cu(111) is more favorable for catalyzing CO2ER towards ethanol. From the optimized geometry of SDS, Cu(111) and *HCCOH (Fig. 4d) via DFT calculations, it is clear that a strong hydrogen bond could be formed between the O atom of the SDS anion and the hydroxyl H of *HCCOH with a length of 1.53 Å (Fig. S28†), which may be responsible for suppressing the deoxygenation of *HCCOH upon further reduction, thus generating ethanol.
Footnote |
† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available: Details of materials, experimental instruments and measurement process, characterization of precatalysts, identification of products (GC and NMR), other electrochemical related characterization, and DFT calculation results. See DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/d3sc06351h |
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