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DOI: 10.1039/D4RP00058G (Paper) Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2024, 25, 934-948

Factors shaping the choice in chemistry: insights from undergraduate students within a societal context†

Shirly Avargil *a, Greta Sterimbaum b and Hafeeza Dahley-Zoabi a
aTechnion – Israel Institute of Technology, Israel. E-mail: savargil@technion.ac.il
bBar-Ilan University, Israel

Received 20th February 2024 , Accepted 30th April 2024

First published on 1st May 2024

Abstract

There is a decline in recent years in the number of students studying chemistry in higher education. Many studies have been conducted on elementary and high school students' choice with fewer focusing on the factors that influence undergraduate students to choose to major in chemistry. Research also indicates that belonging to a minority group influences the choice of pursuing science. Despite a higher percentage of Israeli Arab students studying chemistry in high school compared to Israeli Jewish students, the percentage of those who continue to study chemistry in higher education is small. They also lack sufficient representation in academia and industry. Analyzing the similarities and differences in the perceptions of Israeli Jewish and Arab students may shed light on the societal aspect and its role in shaping chemistry participation. This led us to ask the following questions concerning undergraduate chemistry students: (1) What are the factors that influence undergraduate chemistry students to choose a chemistry career? (2) What are the differences between Jewish and Arab undergraduate chemistry students in choosing chemistry career, if any? (3) How do the factors that influence chemistry career choice correlate, if at all? Guided by the social cognitive career theory (SCCT), we used quantitative and qualitative methods to identify and analyze factors and categories. These factors and categories were related to personal and environmental themes and influenced third-year chemistry undergraduate students to choose a chemistry career. 117 third-year undergraduate chemistry students took part in this research. The findings indicate that there are six major factors in choosing a career in chemistry by undergraduate students, which are divided into two themes, a personal theme, and an environmental theme. Our study shows that ‘self-efficacy – scientific/chemistry learning’ is secondary to students’ desire to complete an academic degree. The influence of their friends and family and extrinsic motivation related to rewards/status/prestige are more influential as well. When exploring differences between Israeli Jewish and Israeli Arab societies, our findings revealed variations in the factors influencing career choices. Our findings have practical implications for educational institutions aiming to foster a diverse and inclusive learning environment in chemistry education.

Introduction

Despite the demand for science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) professionals, there is a persistent shortage of individuals pursuing careers in these disciplines, and specifically a persistent shortage among individuals from underrepresented groups (van Tuijl and van der Molen, 2016; López et al., 2023).

Understanding the factors influencing learning in STEM fields is crucial to address the need for professionals in STEM careers and supporting economic development (Nugent et al., 2015; Staus et al., 2020; Halim et al., 2023; Nitzan-Tamar and Kohen, 2022). Studies showed that choosing a STEM career is influenced by personal factors (e.g., interest, self-efficacy, perception of the subject) and environmental-social factors (e.g., family, teachers, peers, social background) (Chakraverty and Tai, 2013; Venville et al., 2013; López et al., 2023). Many studies have been conducted on elementary and high school students' choice of STEM learning and career (Guo et al., 2022; Huangfu et al., 2022; Ofek-Geva et al., 2023), with fewer focusing on university education and the factors that influence undergraduate students to choose to major specifically in chemistry. (Ogunde et al., 2017; Avargil et al., 2020; Archer et al., 2023). Moreover, national and international reports as well as academic research, specifically emphasize the shortage of professional chemistry scientists, some reports also claim this shortage in the field of chemistry is worse than in other STEM disciplines (Xue and Larson, 2015; Avargil et al., 2020; Guha et al., 2020; Avargil et al. 2023; Robertson, 2023).

Therefore, there is a need for research on choosing a career in chemistry due to the decline in recent years in the number of students studying chemistry in higher education and due to the declining number of students choosing to pursue a career in the sciences, particularly chemistry (Nugent et al., 2015; Sasson, 2021; Shwartz et al., 2021). Further understanding the factors influencing interest and learning in chemistry among undergraduate students can help address this decline.

Research also indicate that belonging to a minority group influences the choice of pursuing science (Peterson-Beeton, 2007; Wong, 2015; Cooper and Berry, 2020). In Israel, the Israeli Arab society constitutes a significant minority group, comprising approximately 20% of the population of the Israeli citizens (including Muslims, Christians, Druze, and Bedouin). Shwartz et al. (2021), showed, using data from the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) in Israel, that the choice of chemistry declines when transitioning from high school to higher education which contributes to a shortage of individuals engaging in chemistry in academia and industry. However, their data showed an increase in the number of students from the Israeli Arab society majoring in chemistry in high school. Nevertheless, compared to the Israel Jewish society, a lower percentage of students from the Israeli Arab society, who studied chemistry in high school, continue these studies at the university level, many choose to study medicine, pharmacy, and health professions rather than chemistry. Advanced-level chemistry studies in high school help them when applying to higher education in these fields (Avargil et al., 2020). Still, this trend contributes to the decline in chemistry studies in higher education. Chemistry is often perceived as a challenging field that requires abstract thinking (Taber, 2018; Gulacar et al., 2020; Avargil et al., 2021; Matovu et al., 2022) and a substantial investment of time, patience, and perseverance (Salta et al., 2012). These perceptions contribute to the notion that chemistry is not a popular career choice, with a declining trend in recent years.

Examining the factors influencing the choice of a career in chemistry among members of both the Jewish (majority group) and the Arab (minority group) can provide insights into the chemistry profession in the academic and industrial landscape.

The main objective of this research is to examine the factors influencing chemistry undergraduate students in their career choices, exploring the interplay between these factors and the impact of societal context, Jewish or Arab society. The study focuses on undergraduate students in their final year of study, investigating the factors that shape their decisions to choose a career in chemistry.

Our study has the potential to shed light on the motivation underlying the decision to pursue chemistry studies and a future chemistry career within the Jewish and Arab societies in Israel.

This leads us to ask the following questions concerning undergraduate chemistry students:

1. What are the factors that influence undergraduate chemistry students to choose a chemistry career?

2. What are the differences between Jewish and Arab undergraduate chemistry students in choosing chemistry career, if any?

3. How do the factors that influence chemistry career choice correlate, if at all?

Social cognitive career theory (SCCT)

The theory that guided this study is the social cognitive career theory (SCCT), which includes the influence of environmental, personal, and behavioral themes (Bandura, 1991; Lent et al., 2005; Fouad and Santana, 2017; Blake, 2018). SCCT provides the basis for examining the factors influencing chemistry students in choosing a career in chemistry, the relationship between the factors and the influence of a specific larger societal context (Lent et al., 2000), the Jewish or Arab societies.

Lent and colleagues (2000) present a simplified conceptual framework illustrating the interplay between personal and environmental factors, depicting how the environment envelops individuals, shaping the context within which their career behaviors unfold. Fig. 1 is an adapted conceptual framework based on their model (Lent et al., 2000, pp. 45).


image file: d4rp00058g-f1.tif
Fig. 1 An adapted conceptual framework of environmental layers that envelop the person.

The personal theme includes several constructs (e.g., self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and goals), in this paper we focused on undergraduate students’ self-efficacy as a factor for choosing a career in chemistry. Self-efficacy impacts motivation and performance across various life domains, making self-evaluation an important factor in career development.

The immediate environment refers to proximal environmental influences that can either support a career choice or raise obstacles (barriers) – family, friends, teachers, financial conditions.

The interaction between an individual, their environment, and behavior fosters a sense of self-efficacy that aids in efficiently utilizing personal-internal resources (Bandura, 1991).

The larger societal context refers to macro conditions in which the person lives, such as culture, demographic features, society norms, political climate etc.

Lastly, the overt behavioral includes achievement or failure in studies, involvement in activities related to personal goals, effort, perseverance, and the person's choice itself (Lent et al., 2000, 2003, 2005, 2008; Blake, 2018). Thus, the selection of a career path is influenced by various factors, including personality, self-efficacy, environmental influences, and the social and cultural context in which an individual lives (Lent et al., 2002).

Choosing a career in STEM

A range of factors related to personality, and self-efficacy influence career decisions (Skinner et al., 2017; Chan and Wang, 2018; Abe and Chikoko, 2020; Kricorian et al., 2020). Other factors related to the personal theme that were identified as factors for a future career choice include values, lifestyle, and previous achievements, all associated with developing students' self-efficacy in STEM (Hazari et al., 2010; Dabney et al., 2012; Dou et al., 2019).

Environmental factors also play a role in students' choice and persistence in STEM fields, such as educational support programs, support plans during the first year of academic studies, (Linnenbrink-Garcia et al., 2018), family demographic data, parental impact on their children's science decisions (Rodrigues and Snape, 2011; Cian et al., 2022), encouragement to pursue a scientific career, courses offered in school, such as mathematics and science courses (Eccles and Wang, 2016; Gottlieb, 2018; Kwon et al., 2019). Financial status, quality of life, and personal satisfaction are other factors affecting STEM career choices (Nugent et al., 2015).

Choosing a major and career in chemistry

Choosing a field of study for undergraduate education is a pivotal decision that shapes the academic and professional journey of individuals (Holmegaard et al., 2014a, 2014b). Chemistry, as a discipline, offers a diverse and foundational understanding of matter, providing insights into the principles governing the physical world (Claesgens et al., 2009). Individual passion for scientific inquiry and a curiosity about the natural world emerge as powerful motivators for choosing chemistry as an undergraduate major (Venville et al., 2013; Rery et al., 2020; Avargil et al., 2023). Students who exhibit an intrinsic interest in exploring chemical phenomena and understanding molecular processes are more likely to opt for chemistry programs (Lyons, 2006; Mujtaba et al., 2018). Additionally, individuals with a solid foundation in high school chemistry coursework may find themselves naturally drawn to the subject (Shedlosky-Shoemaker and Fautch, 2015; Avargil et al., 2020; Shwartz et al., 2021; Avargil et al., 2023). Despite its appeal, the perceived difficulty of chemistry can act as a deterrent for some students. Students may shy away from pursuing chemistry due to a fear of its complexity and rigorous mathematical aspects. Ardura and Pérez-Bitrián (2018) argued that the perception of chemistry as difficult and overly theoretical affects motivation for learning the subject. However, motivation for a career in chemistry is heightened when the relevance of chemistry to daily life is recognized, a key factor in future career decisions. Barriers to choosing a career in chemistry are linked to the profession's perceived lower ranking in the education system. For example, limited class time is allocated to the subject of chemistry, less financial support (compared to physics or computer science) is invested, and there is a perception that there are limited employment opportunities (Ogunde et al., 2017; Salonen et al., 2018; Solano et al., 2011).

Research suggests that during the early stages of career development in chemistry, students' personal expectations are high, however, students expressed the need for support from their environment (family, friends, and peers) to achieve success, along with the support of talented and encouraging lecturers (Tucci et al., 2014; Howe et al., 2022). Social factors, including the influence of peers and family, contribute significantly to the choice of studying chemistry. Family support and close friends expressing interest in chemistry fields were found to positively influence attitudes toward chemistry professions, contributing to increased motivation in choosing a chemistry career (Mujtaba et al., 2018).

Students may be motivated to choose chemistry as a major if they are familiar with career prospects, such as opportunities in research and development, industry, or academia. Understanding the practical applications and potential career paths within chemistry can influence students to select it as a focal area of study (Yasin and Yueying, 2017).

Finally, the literature indicates that the choice of studying chemistry in undergraduate studies is influenced by a combination of educational background, career aspirations, passion for scientific inquiry, the quality of academic programs, and social factors.

Career choice in chemistry among minorities

The pursuit of careers in chemistry among minority groups is a critical aspect of fostering diversity and inclusivity within the field (Greene et al., 2011; Stockard et al., 2021). For students from minority backgrounds, both in high school and college, there are specific needs (Peterson-Beeton, 2007; Blake, 2018). These needs are particularly evident in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). To promote persistence in STEM career paths, especially for underrepresented minority groups, a better understanding of personal and societal factors is essential (Oplatka and Lapidot, 2012; Casad et al., 2016). Several explanations exist for the persistently low representation of ethnic/religious minorities, both in undergraduate and graduate studies, including lack of family support, employment prospects, inadequate schooling, economic constraints, and students' perception in the university setting (Shiner and Modood, 2002; Carpi et al., 2017; Kricorian et al., 2020). Despite significant advancements and efforts to address this issue, substantial gaps persist between students defined as minorities in society and those belonging to the majority (Wong, 2015; Finkel, 2017; Fink et al., 2018).

Peterson-Beeton (2007) examined minority high school students’ interest in chemistry studies and identified negative perceptions of science, low expectations from their teachers, traditional teaching methods, and negative stereotypes about scientists. All participants indicated that more science activities in chemistry classes, active learning in groups, and making science lessons more relevant to daily life and more interesting could increase students' interest in the field. However, it is important to note that delivering quality science lessons can be a challenge in minority schools, which suffer from a lack of resources, insufficient laboratory equipment, and a lack of active teaching methods, including the use of technology (Peterson-Beeton, 2007). The literature highlights a range of interconnected factors influencing the choice of a career in chemistry among minority groups. Educational opportunities, mentorship, cultural influences, community engagement, and financial considerations all play pivotal roles (Smith and Russell, 2020; Stockard et al., 2021).

Considering the observation that fewer Israeli Arab students who studied chemistry in high school continue these studies at the university level, our study aims to investigate the factors influencing chemistry undergraduate students' career choices while exploring the interplay between these factors and the impact of societal context—Jewish society or Arab society.

Research method

To provide a deep understanding of the factors that influence chemistry career choice, we used the convergent parallel mixed methods design (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2018). This involved the collection of quantitative data through a questionnaire, developed, and used in previous studies (Avargil et al., 2020; Shwartz et al., 2021), and qualitative data through several personal interviews. Guided by the SCCT theoretical framework, we used quantitative and qualitative methods to identify and analyze factors from the questionnaire and categories from the interviews to strengthen the trustworthiness of our findings. These factors and categories were related to personal and environmental themes and influenced third-year chemistry undergraduate students to choose a chemistry career.

Research setting

Higher education institutions in Israel are shared among all society's groups, with Jewish and Arab students studying together. Higher education is considered a place of social mobility and higher professional status for minorities, both in terms of identity and culture. In the field of chemistry, there is a small representation of Israeli Arab scientists in academia and industry. This percentage does not correspond to the Israeli Arab society's percentage in the overall population of Israel, although in recent years there has been an upward trend in the number of students from the Israeli Arab society choosing to study chemistry in high school (Blonder et al., 2015; Markic et al., 2016). Despite a higher percentage of Israeli Arab students studying chemistry in high school compared to Israeli Jewish students, the percentage of those who continue to study chemistry in higher education is small. They also lack sufficient representation in academia and industry. Analyzing the similarities and differences in the perceptions of Israeli Jewish and Arab students may shed more light on the societal aspect and its role in shaping chemistry participation.

Research participants

Study combined purposeful and convenient sampling techniques (Maxwell, 1995), which involved selecting the most productive sample to address the research questions (Marshall, 1996). We recruited participants who were third-year undergraduate chemistry students from two different societies in our country – the Jewish and Arab societies. We approached students from five leading research universities by sending a personal e-mail specifying the aims of the research and the participants’ rights and asking them to sign a consent form and fill in the questionnaire. We also asked permission to visit chemistry classes at universities, searching for volunteers for our research. The number of third-year undergraduate chemistry students who took part in this research was 117, including 80 women. This represents the actual trend of the population in our country, where women undergraduate students choose chemistry as a major more than men (Avargil et al., 2020). Within the research participants, 42 declared that they belong to the Jewish society and 73 declared that they belong to the Arab society (two students did not declare their social affiliation). Regarding majoring in chemistry in high school, 84% studied chemistry as a major in high school (i.e., learned chemistry between 5–6 hours per week in grades 10th–12th, similar to A level in England and AP in USA).

Research tools

We used two tools in our study: the chemistry career choice (C3) questionnaire and an interview protocol.

The chemistry career choice (C3) questionnaire

In the first part of the questionnaire, information was collected about societal affiliation (Jewish or Arab), and high school major in chemistry. Likert-type items were included in the second part. A total of 40 items were initially included in the original version, which incorporated items from different existing questionnaires as well as items we composed to suit the study's objectives and the Israeli culture (Holland et al., 1980; Betz et al., 2003; Dalgety et al., 2003; Adedokun et al., 2013). Each item was scored from 1 to 5, where 1 means “I do not agree at all” and 5 means “I strongly agree”. To ensure respondents' answers consistency, some items were phrased negatively.

C3 Questionnaire reliability and validity were assessed at a few stages: (A) an inter-judge content validation was conducted to classify items into environmental or personal themes. We excluded items that were unclear or disagreed upon by six science education researchers. (B) A preliminary pilot test with 70 third-year undergraduate STEM (not specifically chemistry major) students. (C) In a previous research (Avargil et al., 2020), 190 participants completed the questionnaire independently, without time limits, after the items were randomly arranged in the questionnaire. More details can be found in Avargil et al., (2020).

By using an oblique rotation, an exploratory factor analysis revealed six factors which accounted for 50% of the variance. Because of low factor loading, items were removed from the questionnaire at this stage and the final questionnaire included 34 items.

The personal theme included three factors: (a) self-efficacy relating to learning science/chemistry, which means the person's sense of efficacy in learning chemistry and their confidence in their capability to learn chemistry; (b) self-efficacy relating to task-oriented behavior, which means the person's persistence in their sense of ability in achieving tasks and goals; and (c) self-efficacy relating to confidence in one's career in chemistry, which means the person's sense of efficacy in developing a chemistry related career. The environmental theme included three factors: (a) extrinsic motivation – rewards/status/prestige, which means the attitudes, stigmas, and salary aspects regarding the chemistry profession; (b) influence of teachers/lecturers, which means the influence of teachers and lecturers of the choice of chemistry profession; and (c) influence of family and friends on choosing chemistry as a profession.

An estimate of Cronbach's Alpha reliability was re-calculated for the current study, showing high internal consistency, α = 0.89. Each factor was tested for reliability using Cronbach's Alpha. Table 1 presents the different factors, examples of items from the questionnaire, and Cronbach's Alpha reliability estimates.

Table 1 The factors, examples of items from the questionnaire, and the Cronbach's Alpha reliability estimates for third year chemistry undergraduate students
Factor Examples of items from the questionnaire Cronbach's α (N = 117)
Personal theme
(1) Self-efficacy – scientific/chemistry learning • I can understand research processes in chemistry 0.82
• I have the ability to follow and understand scientific innovations
(2) Self-efficacy – task oriented • I have the ability to deal with challenging tasks 0.80
• I have the ability to meet deadlines
(3) Self-efficacy – confidence in one's career in chemistry • I have tensions regarding my ability to pursue a career in chemistry 0.52
• I lack self-confidence in my potential for achieving my chosen occupation
Environmental theme
(4) Extrinsic motivation – rewards/status/prestige • Working in chemistry allows high social status 0.85
• My job will allow me an adequate salary
(5) Influence of teachers/lecturers • My teacher/lecturer encouraged me to read advance papers in chemistry 0.86
• My teacher/lecturer have made me feel that I have the ability to continue in science
(6) Influence of family and friends • I am interested in a job that will consider my family status 0.50
• I am encouraged by people surrounding me to continue to study chemistry

Table 1 shows good to high-medium internal consistency for the six factors. The next step was calculating the average score for each participant in each factor and conducting statistical analysis described in the findings section. For answering research question 1 and 2, we looked only at the individual constructs of SCCT and not the link between each construct.

The interview

Semi-structured interviews with undergraduate chemistry students were conducted to support the quantitative findings. The interview protocol included 10 leading questions, see ESI.† interviews (Patton, 1990) were conducted face to face, in order to achieve a good relationship with interviewees, with 11 third year undergraduate chemistry students, six from the Israeli Arab society. The interviews were conducted by the second and third authors and the first author joined the first interview of each interviewer. Each interview lasted between 30–45 minutes and was recorded and transcribed verbatim. The analysis relied on the SCCT theory; we first coded the interview using organizational categories: personal and environmental. Then, segments in each organizational category were further analyzed into more descriptive sub-categories using the directed content analysis (Hsieh and Shannon, 2005). Content analysis enables inductive and deductive coding of text data to identify categories, which can be flexibly drawn from the data or derived from the theory (Cho and Lee, 2014). Each interview analysis was compared to the following interview while the sub-categories became clear and precise (Boeije, 2002). Three science education researchers conducted a process of interrater reliability. Interrater reliability achieved 88% agreement on average, with an average kappa = 0.92 for organizational categories and sub-categories.

Findings

In this section we present the findings for each research question.

Factors that influence undergraduate chemistry students to choose a chemistry career

To answer the first research question, what are the factors that influence undergraduate chemistry students to choose a chemistry career? We analyzed chemistry undergraduate students’ answers to the items in the questionnaire. Fig. 2 shows the means of each factor for the career choice (N = 117).
image file: d4rp00058g-f2.tif
Fig. 2 Means of the factors (N = 117).

The findings indicate that there are six major factors in choosing a career in chemistry by undergraduate students, which are divided into two themes, a personal theme, and an environmental theme.

Quantitative data were analyzed using a repeated measures ANOVA procedure. Mauchly's test indicated that the assumption of sphericity had been violated‡ (χ2(14) = 203.59, p < 0.001), therefore degrees of freedom were corrected using Greenhouse-Geisser estimates of sphericity (ε = 0.58). Repeated measures analysis revealed a significant difference between the six factors means, F(2.88,334.01) = 11.93, p < 0.001.

Pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni adjustment of the p-values showed that there were significant differences (p < 0.01) between the following factor: 1–2, 1–4, 1–5, 2–3, 2–5, 3–4, 3–6, 4–5, 5–6. Fig. 3 summarizes visually the differences between the factors. The most influencing factors are factor (2) self-efficacy – task oriented (4.244), factor (4) extrinsic motivation – rewards/status/prestige (4.222), and factor (6) influence of family and friends (4.091). Factors (2), (4), and (6) are in the upper row in Fig. 3 with the highest means and no statistically significant difference between them.


image file: d4rp00058g-f3.tif
Fig. 3 Differences between the means of the factors that influence undergraduate chemistry students to choose a chemistry career (significant differences are marked with green rectangles).

In the personal theme factor (2) self-efficacy – task oriented (4.244) is significantly higher compared to the other two factors in this theme: (1) self-efficacy – scientific/chemistry learning (3.986), and (3) self-efficacy – confidence in one's career in chemistry (3.781). In the environmental theme, it was found that the factor (4) extrinsic motivation – rewards/status/prestige (4.222) as well as the factor (6) influence of family and friends (4.091) are significantly higher compared to the factor (5) influence of teachers/lecturers (3.588).

In the interviews, we found examples which refer to all six factors and further supported the existence of the factors found in the quantitative analysis. Table 2 presents examples from the interviews for each factor.

Table 2 Examples from the interviews for each factor
Factor Examples from students’ interviews
(1) Self-efficacy – scientific/chemistry learning (the person's sense of efficacy in learning chemistry and their confidence in their capability to learn chemistry) • “I believe that after experimenting in other and different fields, chemistry is what I love and keeps me busy every day… I came to decide to study chemistry… out of love and not money.” (Carmel. woman, Jewish sector). [Carmel is expressing sense of efficacy in learning chemistry; it keeps her busy every day which expresses her confidence in her capability in learning chemistry].
• “After I realized my success in this domain, I realized that this is the field that interests me. I want to pursue a master's degree in chemistry because I love and am interested in chemistry, and what strengthens that feeling is that I am already working in a laboratory [of one of the researchers].” (Hiba, women, Arab sector). [Hiba is expressing confidence, love, and interest in the field of chemistry, and thus expresses a sense of efficacy in learning chemistry].
(2) Self-efficacy – task oriented (the person's persistence in their sense of ability in achieving tasks and goals) • “What I start and set as a goal; I finish it. There is no such thing as dropping in the middle” (Liat, woman, Jewish sector)
• “…learning chemistry was prestigious and it was more difficult to be accepted, as if it was in some place a barrier. I said to myself “I will succeed!”.” (Waseem, men, Arab sector)
[Both quotes represent the persistence of completing tasks and succeeding]
(3) Self-efficacy – confidence in one's career in chemistry (the person's sense of efficacy in developing a chemistry related career) • “Rather than relying on a partner for success, my goal is to continue to succeed on my own. My goal is to promote myself as much as possible, and for no one to say that I cannot.” (Marwa, women, Arab sector)
• “During the learning process, I discovered that there are many careers, which are related to chemistry: for example, high-tech careers in a range of fields, in the fields of chemistry, electronics, electrochemistry, energy sources, and other sectors related to chemistry.” (Ron, women, Jewish sector)
(4) Extrinsic motivation – rewards/status/prestige (attitudes, stigmas, and salary aspects regarding the chemistry profession) • “Before I started my bachelor's degree, my financial situation was not good, we had no source of income” (Abed, men, Arab sector)
• “It would be helpful if there were examples of people who studied chemistry and are now working and earning good salaries as a result of their studies.” (Janin, women, Arab sector)
(5) Influence of teachers/lecturers (the influence of teachers and lecturers on the choice of chemistry profession) • “I believe that I came prepared [to the university] from high school as a result of the subjects that my high school chemistry teacher chose to teach me. Among the subjects that were studied in the 12th grade, there were a number of subjects which are very similar to what is taught at the university. … My teacher provided us with a good understanding of chemistry.” (Marwa, women, Arab sector)
• “I took a quantum chemistry course in university. What can I tell you about quantum chemistry? Nothing!!! I do not know anything about that. I do not know how I passed the test! There are a lot of courses that I know nothing about! So far, I have not figured out how I passed some of my tests.” (Yuval, men, Jewish sector) [In this quote Yuval express a frustration from the courses at his university and the fact that although he goes to classes the teaching in those classes does not help him understand the content. On the other hand, the previous by Marwa show that the teacher was instrumental in learning chemistry and understanding the subject]
(6) Influence of family and friends (the influence of family and close friends on choosing chemistry as a profession) • “In my case, my parents supported me and my desire to pursue a chemistry degree, they did not stress me out about my employment or salary, but rather encouraged me to study further for advanced degrees in the future.” (Ron, women, Jewish sector)
• “My parents are not academics… they did not play a big role in my choice… Since they are not academics, they did not guide me, but they did encourage me to choose my career [in chemistry].” (Abed, men, Arab sector)

Differences between Israeli Jewish and Arab societies

For answering the second research question—what are the differences between Israeli Jewish and Arab society, if any? we analyzed the answers to the questionnaire separately for the respondents who identified themselves as part of the Israeli Jewish society or the Israeli Arab society. Fig. 4 presents the average scores of each factor for undergraduate chemistry students from both groups.
image file: d4rp00058g-f4.tif
Fig. 4 Mean scores of each factor for undergraduate chemistry students from Arab and Jewish society.

From Fig. 4, it appears that in all the factors, the average for respondents of Israeli Jewish society is lower than for those from the Israeli Arab society. One-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to determine whether there is a difference between the Jewish society and the Arab society regarding the six factors. In the personal theme, there was a statistically significant difference in factor (1) self-efficacy – scientific/chemistry learning. It was found to be statistically higher in the Israeli Arab society (p < 0.001). In the environmental theme, there was also a statistically significant difference in factor (5) influence of teachers/lecturers. It was found to be statistically higher in the Israeli Arab society (p < 0.05).

For the students from each one of the groups—Israeli Jewish society, see Fig. 5, and Israeli Arab society, see Fig. 6, data were analyzed using a repeated measures procedure. Mauchly's test indicated that the assumption of sphericity had been violated (χ2(14) = 143.689, p < 0.001), therefore degrees of freedom were corrected using Greenhouse-Geisser estimates of sphericity (ε = 0.555).


image file: d4rp00058g-f5.tif
Fig. 5 Differences between the factors that influence undergraduate chemistry students from Israeli Jewish society to choose a chemistry career.

image file: d4rp00058g-f6.tif
Fig. 6 Differences between the factors that influence undergraduate chemistry students from Israeli Arab society to choose a chemistry career.

Repeated measures analysis revealed a significant difference in the Israeli Jewish society between the factor scores, F(2.92,119.81) = 10.32, p < 0.001. Pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni adjustment of the p-values showed that there were significant differences (p < 0.05) between the following factor scores: 1–2, 2–5, 4–5, 5–6.

Repeated measures analysis revealed a significant difference in the Israeli Arab society between the factor scores, F(3.12,193.31) = 11.93, p < 0.001. Pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni adjustment of the p-values showed that there were significant differences (p < 0.05) between the following factor scores: 1–2, 1–3, 2–3, 2–5, 3–4, 3–6, 4–5.

Fig. 5 and 6 show that in both societies factor (4) extrinsic motivation – rewards/status/prestige, and factor (6) influence of family and friends, are similarly high.

The analysis of the interviews in both societies also showed that that the influence of family and friends is a main category in choosing chemistry as a major and a career. This was supported by the highest frequency of statements related to this category in both Jewish and Arab interviews.

However, in Israeli Jewish society, factor (2) self-efficacy – task-oriented was the most influencing factor while in Israeli Arab society factor (1) self-efficacy – scientific/chemistry learning was the most influencing factor. This result is also supported by the interviews analysis, students from Israeli Jewish society talked more about their strategy in choosing chemistry in aspects that in might be easier than physics and they feel they can succeed, while students from Israeli Arab society talked more about their love and interest in chemistry.

For both societies, factor (3) self-efficacy – confidence in one's career in chemistry was relatively low.

Specifically, in the Israeli Jewish society factor (5) influence of teachers/lecturers was the least influencing factor.

Correlations between the factors that influence chemistry career choice. To answer the third research question, a Spearman's correlation test was conducted to evaluate the relationship between the factors. Tables 3 and 4 presents Spearman's correlation matrix for factors influencing the choice to study chemistry in Israeli Jewish and Israeli Arab societies.
Table 3 Spearman's correlation matrix for factors influencing the choice to study chemistry in the Israeli Jewish society
Jewish society (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
a Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). b Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
(1) Self-efficacy – scientific/chemistry learning 0.592 0.334b 0.500a 0.154 0.595
(2) Self-efficacy – task oriented 0.342b 0.377b 0.159 0.370b
(3) Self-efficacy – confidence in one's career in chemistry 0.116 0.154 0.209
(4) Extrinsic motivation – rewards/status/prestige −0.097 0.571
(5) Influence of teachers/lecturers 0.151
(6) Influence of family and friends

Table 4 Spearman's correlation matrix for factors influencing the choice to study chemistry in the Israeli Arab society
Arab society (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
a Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). b Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
(1) Self-efficacy – scientific/chemistry learning 0.736 0.328a 0.417a 0.235b 0.589
(2) Self-efficacy – task oriented 0.321a 0.360a 0.258b 0.423a
(3) Self-efficacy – confidence in one's career in chemistry 0.256b 0.339a 0.095
(4) Extrinsic motivation – rewards/status/prestige 0.200 0.332a
(5) Influence of teachers/lecturers 0.231b
(6) Influence of family and friends

Tables 3 and 4 show that is both societies there is a significant, moderate to strong, correlation between factor (1) self-efficacy – scientific/chemistry learning to factor (2) self-efficacy – task oriented (0.592 for Israeli Jewish society, and 0.736 for Israeli Arab society) and to factor (6) influence of family and friends (0.595 for Israeli Jewish society, and 0.589 for Israeli Arab society). Other notable findings are that in the Israeli Jewish society factor (4) extrinsic motivation – rewards/status/prestige has a significant moderate correlation to factor (6) influence of family and friends (0.571). Also, the tables show that in Arab society there is a significant weak correlation between factor (5) influence of teachers/lecturers to each one of the self-efficacy factors (1–3), while in Israeli Jewish society there are no significant correlation between factor (5) influence of teachers/lecturers to the self-efficacy factors (1–3).

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to understand what influences undergraduate chemistry students' career choices with an emphasis on differences between undergraduate chemistry students from Israeli Jewish and Arab societies.

In answering research question 1 (What are the factors that influence undergraduate chemistry students to choose a chemistry career?) Six factors were identified, which were categorized into personal and environmental themes. Among the personal theme, factor (2), self-efficacy – task-oriented, emerged as a significant factor, reflecting the importance of undergraduate students believing in their ability to succeed in the challenging academic field in general. Our identification of task-oriented self-efficacy as a significant factor resonates with SCCT that argues that high self-efficacy is related to facing career challenges and setbacks (Lent et al., 2000). It was evident from our findings that students placed a high value on goal-oriented perseverance. According to our study, factor (2), self-efficacy – task-oriented, which indicates a goal-driven mindset, for example, completing academic tasks or an academic degree, has a greater influence than undergraduates’ self-efficacy in learning science or chemistry. This was also noted in a qualitative study reported by Abe and Chikoko (2020) where undergraduate STEM students mentioned “champion mindset” as reasons for their career decision-making, implying that not only cognitive self-efficacy influence career decision-making. We showed that factor (2) self-efficacy – task-oriented is significantly more influential than factor (1) self-efficacy – scientific/chemistry learning. Moreover, the relatively low influence of factor (3) self-efficacy – confidence in one's career in chemistry suggests that either students prioritize immediate success and task completion over long-term career plans or that undergraduate chemistry students may not be aware of career opportunities and lack confidence in developing a career in this field. Undergraduate students often have undeveloped career perceptions, in many instances, students are not fully aware of the range of careers that they can pursue after obtaining a degree in chemistry.

Among the environmental theme, factors (4) and (6), encompassing external motivations and impact of rewards, status, prestige, family, and friends on career choices, were found significantly more influencing than the influence of chemistry teachers or lecturers. The influence of extrinsic factors such as rewards, status, and prestige on career choices aligns with previous research in STEM fields (Mujtaba et al., 2018). In Shwartz and colleagues (2021) factors influencing chemistry-related profession choice were examined through the perceptions of chemical industry professionals and chemistry teachers. The authors found that chemical industry professionals perceived the Extrinsic motivation-rewards/status/prestige as most influential while chemistry teachers did not perceive it as the most influential factor. Our findings echo the chemical industry professionals’ perceptions regarding external motivation such as the status of a chemistry career in society, working conditions, and salary. Undergraduate students in our study perceived this factor as one of the most influential (the other two being self-efficacy – task-oriented and influence of family and friends). This result is not aligned with findings from the study of Ogunde et al., (2017) who investigated career aspirations of undergraduate chemistry students’ and found that in UK and New Zealand the most influential factor on the choice to study chemistry is students enjoyment and interest in chemistry. This, however, shows that society is pivotal in the factors that influence chemistry career choice. Our study shows that self-efficacy – scientific/chemistry learning is secondary to students’ desire to complete an academic degree. The influence of their friends and family and extrinsic motivation related to rewards/status/prestige are more influential as well.

In answering research question 2 and 3, (exploring differences between Israeli Jewish and Israeli Arab societies and the correlations between the factors), our findings revealed variations in the factors influencing career choices. In the Israeli Jewish society, factor (2) self-efficacy – task-oriented was most influential, reflecting an emphasis on Israeli Jewish undergraduate students’ individual achievement. In contrast, the chemistry undergraduate students from the Israeli Arab society placed greater importance on factor (1) scientific/chemistry learning self-efficacy. One explanation could be related to the finding in this study that in the Israeli Arab society, factor (5) influence of teachers/lecturers was scored significantly higher than in the Israeli Jewish society. Additionally, the results of the third research question, showed that in the Israeli Arab society factor (5) was correlated to each of the self-efficacy factors (1–3). This may imply that having support from teachers and lecturers is important especially when teaching students from minority groups.

Study implications

This study emphasizes the need for specific interventions to help students learn about their long-term career in chemistry and develop transferable skills essential to work as professional chemists (Solano et al., 2011; Tucci et al., 2014; Yasin and Yueying, 2017; Ribble and Grunert-Kowalske, 2022). Our results emphasize the need for developing positive chemistry career perceptions among undergraduate students (Salonen et al., 2018) but also the need for professional development for chemistry teachers and lecturers about the many applications of chemistry and contributions to industry, high-tech, and daily-life which can improve undergraduate perceptions of chemistry as prestige and rewarding, and thereby advance chemistry-career education (Avargil et al., 2020; Shwartz et al., 2021; Avargil et al., 2023). In some cases, students exhibit limited understanding of professional work areas within the field of chemistry. This lack of awareness is reflected in the absence of knowledge about career paths in industry compared to research. Industry is a common career path for chemists, and limited exposure to professional models outside academia contributes to a lack of awareness of existing employment possibilities. When seeking careers, many students believed that their training did not adequately prepare them for the next step in their career (Yasin and Yueying, 2017). Many Israeli Arabs find themselves eventually working in the health profession (pharmacy and nursing) which is a female-dominated and increasingly ethnicized field characterized by declining prestige, wages, and working conditions (Popper-Giveon et al., 2018).

In order to shape undergraduate students' perceptions of career possibilities in chemistry, universities and industry can work together to enhance communication and collaboration between undergraduates and diverse work environments, as well as align the skills taught with industry requirements (Tucci et al., 2014; Ogunde et al., 2017; Salonen et al., 2018; Avargil, 2022). The study also revealed cultural nuances which are important to acknowledge when aiming to foster a diverse and inclusive learning environment in chemistry education. Our findings align with the broader literature on the importance of mentors in STEM fields. Mentorship programs have been shown to positively impact minority students' career choices, academic performance, and overall satisfaction (Solano et al., 2011; Kricorian et al., 2020; Howe et al., 2022; Rocker Yoel and Dori, 2023).

Limitations

The results of this study, while valuable in terms of providing insights into what influences undergraduate chemistry students' career choices, have some limitations which may limit their generalizability and interpretation. A more comprehensive qualitative methodology could be used in future research, even though the study integrated quantitative and qualitative data. We found six major factors that influence career choices, but they may not encompass all possible factors. Other variables not explicitly examined in this study, such as institutional support, career counseling, or exposure to industry practices, could be considered in future studies. In applying these findings to other cultural or regional settings, it is important to keep in mind that the study focused on differences between societies within a specific geographical context.

Contributions and further research

Our findings have practical implications for educational institutions aiming to foster a diverse and inclusive learning environment in chemistry education. Tailored interventions should focus on enhancing self-efficacy, providing mentorship programs, and addressing financial concerns to support students in making informed and sustainable career choices (Avargil et al., 2020). Additionally, recognizing cultural differences can inform the development of targeted initiatives that resonate with the unique needs of students from different societal backgrounds.

Ongoing research is necessary to further explore evolving trends, assess the effectiveness of diversity initiatives, and develop targeted interventions that address the specific needs of minority individuals pursuing careers in chemistry. Theoretically we showed that using SCCT can reveal differences related to societal context. Continued efforts in research and implementation will contribute to a more inclusive and diverse future for the field. This study contributes valuable insights into the factors shaping undergraduate chemistry students' career choices, emphasizing the interplay between personal and environmental influences. Future research could explore the long-term impact of these factors on career satisfaction and success (Avargil et al., 2023), offering a comprehensive understanding of the dynamic relationship between individual choices and societal contexts in the field of chemistry.

In this study, factors influencing career choices at a particular point are examined. A longitudinal study could provide a more comprehensive understanding of how these factors change over time.

In conclusion, our study builds upon and reinforces key findings in literature, contributing nuanced insights into the factors influencing career choices among undergraduate chemistry students.

Ethical considerations

Participants signed a consent from informing them of the aim of this study, their rights, and ensuring anonymity.

This study was approved by the institute review board, approval number: 2019032.

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts to declare.

Acknowledgements

The generous financial help of the Israel Science Foundation (#1725/16) is gratefully acknowledged.

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Footnotes

† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available. See DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/d4rp00058g
‡ Sphericity is an assumption underlying the use of repeated measures ANOVA which assumes equal variances of the differences between all pairs of within-subject conditions. Greenhouse-Geisser corrections, adjust the degrees of freedom and the corresponding p-values.
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