Jong Hyun Kang‡
ab,
Ju Young Kim‡a,
Yejin Joac,
Hyun-Suk Kimb,
Sung Mook Junga,
Su Yeon Lee
a,
Youngmin Choi*ac and
Sunho Jeong
*d
aDivision of Advanced Materials, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), 141 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-600, Korea. E-mail: youngmin@krict.re.kr
bDepartment of Materials Science and Engineering, College of Engineering, Chungnam National University, 99 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-764, Korea
cDepartment of Chemical Convergence Materials, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST), 217 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-350, Korea
dDepartment of Advanced Materials Engineering for Information and Electronics, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 17104, Korea. E-mail: sjeong@khu.ac.kr
First published on 4th December 2019
In this study, we formulate three-dimensionally (3D) printable composite pastes employing electrostatically assembled-hybrid carbon and a polystyrene-polyisoprene-polystyrene tri-block copolymer elastomer for the fabrication of multi-stack printed piezoresistive pressure sensor arrays. To address a critical drawback of piezoresistive composite materials, we have developed a previously unrecognized strategy of incorporating a non-ionic amphiphilic surfactant, sorbitan trioleate, into composite materials. It is revealed that the surfactant with an appropriate amphiphilic property, represented by the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) index of 1.8, allows for a reversible piezoresistive characteristic under a wide pressure range up to 30 kPa as well as a significant reduction of elastomer viscoelastic behavior. The 3D-printed pressure sensor arrays exhibit a sensitivity of 0.31 kPa−1 in a linear trend, and it is demonstrated successfully that the position-addressable array device is capable of spatially detecting objects up to a pressure level of 22.1 kPa.
The flexible pressure sensors developed to date can be categorized by their measurable characteristics of capacitance, piezoresistivity, and piezoelectricity. Among them, capacitance-based pressure sensors have been widely developed, with a distinct advantage in terms of both sensitivity and resolution;12–14 but, they require accurate measurement systems for gathering capacitance signals ranging a few tens of pF and might be implemented with complex readout units in practical applications. In the case of piezoresistive pressure sensors, electrical signals can be collected over a wide detection range by simply measuring pressure-dependent variation in either current or resistance. Simply, there are different two modes. In a “type I” mode, a partially-interconnected conductive framework inside pre-formed structures or porous composites is varied as a function of applied pressure, which regulates conductive pathways, increasing the current level under a provision of pressure.15–17 However, these devices tend to suffer from non-linear characteristics in sensitivity. Recently, it was reported that such a limited behavior is resolved with a specific structural strategy of, for example, increasing the number of sensing layers.18 The operation mechanism of the “type II” mode is similar to that of piezoresistive strain sensor devices. When an external pressure is applied to stretchable sensor layers, the stretchable conductive networks inside them are reconstructed with a proportional increment in resistance as a function of pressure level.19 This type of device possesses practical advantages over its counterparts in terms of a moderately high sensitivity, a wide detection range, and a simple device architecture; however, there are the critical drawbacks of poor reversibility and a hysteresis, attributable to the intrinsic viscoelastic property of elastomeric materials. Piezoelectric pressure sensor devices are applicable to self-powered circuitries;20,21 however, due to the intrinsic nature of piezoelectricity, a static pressure signal is not obtainable without the aid of other measurement units, and a chemical design for endowing inorganic ceramic materials with flexibility should be taken into consideration.
Another issue that is of paramount importance in practical applications, is a processability in the fabrication of position-addressable pressure sensor arrays. To date, most pressure sensor arrays have been fabricated with vacuum-deposited electrode layers and mask-based patterning techniques.14,18,19,22,23 Alternatively, mold-based soft-patterning techniques have been suggested for easy accessibility toward a facile patterning process.24,25 Considering the dimensions of objects that are prone to be detected in pressure sensor applications, a printing technique that is mask-free, inexpensive, large-area processable, is more appropriate for the fabrication of pressure sensor devices; however, directly-printed pressure sensor arrays have been rarely reported due to the difficulty of formulating printable fluids that can form highly-functioning sensing layers.
In this study, we have formulated three-dimensionally printable (3D-printable) composite pastes for “type II” mode-piezoresistive pressure sensor arrays. Irreversible behavior, a critical impediment in elastomeric material, is resolved through an approach of incorporating a surfactant with a specific chemical property. It is revealed clearly that a reversible behavior of piezoelectric composite materials is adjustable depending on the kind of surfactant and the relative amount of surfactant. As a conductive moiety, hybrid carbons were synthesized from non-destructively amine-functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes (NH2MWNTs) and graphene oxides (GOs). A mixture of surfactant-mediated elastomer and hybrid carbons is formulated into 3D-printable paste, with a characteristic rheological property suitable for forming vertically-stackable structures. The 3D-printed pressure sensor array is demonstrated on pre-structured polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) substrate, with an excellent sensitivity of 0.31 kPa−1 in a wide range up to 30 kPa, enough to detect most human daily activities.
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Scheme 1 Schematics of preparation procedures of hysteresis-less piezoresistive composite pastes and 3D printing process for the fabrication of pressure sensor array devices. |
At first, the electrical characteristics of the sensor layers were evaluated except the involvement of processing parameters. The carbon composite pastes were printed on (tridecafluoro-1,1,2,2-tetrahydrooctyl)trichlorosilane-treated hydrophobic glass substrates, and the detached printed layers were transferred onto well structures, which were fabricated by a 3D stereolithography (SLA) printing process. Both ends of the sensor layers were electrically connected by Cu wires with commercial silver epoxy pastes, as shown in Fig. 1a. The composite layers including pristine, STO-added, SMO-added, and SML-added SIS elastomeric matrix are denoted as P-SIS, STO–SIS, SMO–SIS, and SML–SIS, respectively. For the case of the P-SIS sensor, various abnormal piezoresistive responses were observed (Fig. 1b): (i) an electrical response not being recovered completely, (ii) a delay in resistance signal when the external pressure starts to decrease, and (iii) a noisy signal background in overall measurements. In piezoresistive sensors, abnormal resistance signals that do not precisely reflect a variation in stress or strain, are mainly attributable to the viscoelastic nature of elastomeric matrix surrounding conductive fillers and the irreversible transformation of conductive networks in the composite layers.30,31 Interestingly, as shown in the case of the STO–SIS sensor, such non-ideal behaviors were resolved clearly by the addition of a non-ionic amphiphilic STO surfactant with a composition of 30 wt% (Fig. 1c). The STO comprises three bulky hydrophobic chains and a hydrophilic core chemical moiety. It is observed that a resistance base line goes up slightly even in the STO–SIS device with increasing a pressure level. A reversible behavior of elastomer by an addition of STO surfactant, will be discussed in this study. It is speculated that such an increment in base line can be associated with a spatial movement of conductive fillers. Recently, we reported a reversible orientation of metallic flake is adjustable with an addition of non-ionic amphiphilic surfactant in the composite material for stretchable conductor.32 Thus, it is highly believed that by an addition of appropriate surfactant, both of impediments in piezoresistive composite materials were almost resolved, but a subtle degree of abnormal behavior remains in the STO–SIS sensor device. A sensitivity as high as 0.2 kPa−1 and a linearity of 0.98 were measured under pressure levels up to 30 kPa (Fig. 1d).
Alternatively, other common elastomers, such as polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and Ecoflex can be used as an elastomeric matrix. The elastic moduli for PDMS (pre-polymer:
cross-linking agent = 10
:
1 w/w) and Ecoflex were measured to be 0.7 and 0.04 MPa, respectively. Both PDMS and Ecoflex can be incorporated in the form of pre-polymer (prior to cross-linking reaction); thus, the preparation of highly-viscous composite pastes is much easier without critical troubles in dissolving polymers in a small amount of solvent. However, while the composite paste is prepared and the printing process is carried out, cross-linking reactions proceed at a sluggish reaction rate even at room temperature, and this results in an uncontrollable variation in rheological properties. The rheological properties of thick fluids vary unpredictably depending on the degree of polymerization of surrounding matrix. In addition, even when the sensor devices are prepared from PDMS-based composite pastes, non-ideal behaviors are observed similar to the case of SIS device (Fig. S1†).
It is believed that a reversible transformation of carbon filler networks is manifested more in the STO–SIS elastomeric matrix. In the P-SIS composite layers, both the elastomeric matrix and hybrid carbon network have a hydrophobic nature and interact with each other with low mixing enthalpy; thus, the hybrid carbon fillers are not freely movable with an instant response when the sensor layer is stretched and released repeatedly at a certain level of pressure. The STO, a kind of non-ionic amphiphilic surfactant, can act as a lubricant in an interfacial regime between a hybrid carbon filler and an SIS elastomer. While bulky hydrophobic chains of STO would interact with both hydrophobic constituent materials, a hydrophilic chemical moiety can be positioned between hydrophobic surroundings, preventing direct chemical interaction between a hybrid carbon filler and an elastomeric matrix. When less STO was added with a composition of 10 wt%, non-ideal behaviors were not suppressed completely (Fig. S2a†). When a greater amount of STO was incorporated with a composition of 50 wt%, most non-ideal behaviors vanished with a clear instant response; however, a clear resistance signal was not obtainable at pressure levels over 1.9 kPa due to the insufficient elasticity of the elastomeric matrix (Fig. S2b†). The critical chemical structural role of non-ionic amphiphilic surfactant is clarified with a comparative study using more hydrophilic surfactant, sorbitan monolaurate (SML). The hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) indexes are 1.8 and 8.6 for STO and SML, respectively. The noisy signals were eliminated to some extent in the SML–SIS sensor (30 wt% SML-added), but the electrical response still did not recover instantaneously to original level when the external pressure was released (Fig. S3†). It is speculated that a sufficient amount of hydrophobic fragments is required along with a presence of hydrophilic segments to allow an intact interaction with the hydrophobic hybrid carbon filler and the elastomeric polymer. When a moderately hydrophobic surfactant, sorbitan monooleate (SMO), with an HLB index of 4.3 was tested as another control experiment, the resistance-signal showed greater improvement than the cases of SML–SIS devices (Fig. S4†).
The sensitivity of the pressure sensor devices was also improved by the addition of STO to the elastomeric matrix. The sensitivities were evaluated to be 0.08 and 0.2 kPa−1 for the P-SIS and STO–SIS devices, respectively. This is attributable to a significant reduction in the elastic modulus of the surfactant-added elastomeric matrix. As seen in Fig. 1e, the elastic modulus decreased significantly as a function of STO composition in the elastomeric matrix. The elastic modulus was measured as 0.34 MPa when the 30 wt%-STO surfactant was added, while the pristine SIS film has an elastic modulus of 3.2 MPa. The use of a softer elastomeric matrix allows for elastic deformation at a higher strain level under a given pressure level, enabling the operation of more sensitive pressure sensor devices. Thermoplastic elastomeric block-copolymers, such as SIS, are generally composed of a soft segment with a low glass transition temperature (Tg) and a hard segment with a high Tg. For the SIS, the glass transition temperatures of polyisoprene and polystyrene are −67 and 100 °C, respectively. When the thermoplastic elastomer is stretched and released, the soft segment, a partially melt phase at room temperature, is extended and recovered.33 Thus, as the fraction of the soft segment increases, the elastic modulus tends to decrease according to the relative composition of the soft segment. For example, the elastic moduli of SIS films with 78, 83, and 86%-isoprene segment are 3.2, 1.1, and 0.8 MPa, respectively (Fig. S5†). It is believed that the addition of a non-ionic surfactant as a non-volatile liquid phase endows more softness to SIS films, acting as another soft segment in thermoplastic polymers. The viscosities of SML and STO are 5349 and 215 cP, respectively (Fig. S6†); thus, it is believed that the incorporation of viscous fluid would allow a more significant reduction in elastic modulus.
The instantaneous reversible response observable in STO–SIS sensors is also attributable to the well-controlled viscoelasticity of the elastomeric matrix. As seen in Fig. 2a, the thermoplastic elastomers with a low elastic modulus suffered from a hysteresis behavior in the stress–strain curve. This indicates that even after tensile stress is released completely, it undergoes an undesirable elongation in the stretching direction. Such a residual elongation recovers in a time-dependent fashion. Because of such a limited property, conductive networks in thermoplastic elastomeric matrix are not transformed reversibly along an either externally applied stress or strain. It is observed clearly that such a viscoelastic property is suppressed efficiently, along with the aforementioned reduction in elastic modulus, by the addition of non-ionic amphiphilic surfactants to thermoplastic elastomers (Fig. 2b and c). The values of dimensional elongation after the first cycle were 3%, 2% and 0% for the P-SIS, SML–SIS, STO–SIS films, respectively. In the cases of P-SIS and SML–SIS films, such irreversible deformation was accumulated with increasing the number of cycling test at a strain level of 0.2, whereas the STO–SIS film exhibited much more improved reversible deformation. The degree of irreversible dimensional elongation was adjustable depending on the composition of surfactant in STO–SIS elastomeric matrix (Fig. 2d). The values in dimensional elongation after the first and tenth cycles were 3% and 2.7% for 10 wt% STO–SIS films, while the dimension was not ever changed even after 10 cycles for 30 and 50 wt% STO–SIS films. The cycling stability of STO–SIS sensor devices is confirmed in Fig. 2e and S7.†
To formulate 3D-printable composite pastes, we regulated the solvent composition to be 46 wt%. The storage modulus of 15613 Pa was measured for the 3D-printable paste (Fig. 3a). It has been reported that a storage modulus over 104 Pa is high enough to maintain printed structures in forming 3D-stackcable architectures.34 As seen in the inset image, the formulated paste did not flow downward according to gravitational force, owing to its thick rheological property. By virtue of its 3D-structural capability, an upright straight line with an aspect ratio of 46.1 was easily formed with a single vertical-movement of the nozzle, and suspended lines were formed in the well with a spacing ranging from 4 to 10 mm (Fig. 3b). The invariant dimension of the suspended printed lines was confirmed by measuring the linewidth at various positions (Fig. S8†). The variation in linewidth was recorded to be 6.3%. In the fabrication of the printed pressure sensor arrays, 3D-printed inter-connection lines and 3D-structured sensor layers were printed on pre-defined PDMS substrates, as seen in Fig. 3c. A mixture of silver flake, SIS, and DCB was used as a printable conductive paste. Ag electrodes were 3D-printed along the side walls of each unit and the bottom surface in pre-defined PDMS substrates (Movie S1†). The insulator for separating inter-bridging inter-connection lines was sequentially printed over Ag electrode lines (Movie S2†). The multi-stack printable insulator paste was formulated from a mixture of SIS and DCB. Overlying inter-connection lines were printed again over the pre-printed insulator parts by adjusting the movement of the nozzle along the z-axis to maintain the nozzle height from either the substrate or the insulator layer (Movie S3†). Uniformity of the electrical conductance was confirmed by the consistency of resistance at each position in the completely printed inter-connection lines (Fig. S9†). Finally, the piezoresistive sensor parts were printed in each unit comprising two straight support lines and the four-layer stacked rectangular pillar structure (Movie S4†). Photographs of the 3D-printed sensor part in one unit and complete pressure sensor arrays are shown in Fig. 3d and e. All printing processes were carried out in air, and all of the printed layers were dried at 80 °C prior to the next printing process.
For multi-stack printed sensor arrays, a sensitivity of 0.31 kPa−1 was measured at a measurable pressure range up to 30 kPa (Fig. 4a), with an evolution of the signal distinguishable clearly at each pressure level (Fig. 4b). In the pressure sensor devices developed in this study, the electrical signal generation can be adjusted through the variation of architectural factors, such as the height, width, and shape of the pillar structure, in the printed sensor part. Thus, it is believed that the pressure-dependent piezoresistive performance would be improved more with further study for structuring more sensitive sensor layers. The long-term stability was also confirmed through repeated tests at a pressure of 30 kPa (see Fig. S10 and S11, ESI†). To demonstrate the potential of the proposed sensor arrays for practical applications, we placed lightweight objects on a part of units in all-printed pressure sensor arrays. The objects were fabricated by an SLA printing process with weights of 0.78, 4.14, and 8.2 g, which were converted with the values in pressure of 2.1, 11.2, an 22.1 kPa, respectively. As seen in Fig. 4c–e, the resistance signal increased with heavier objects and was measurable clearly on the right position where the objects were placed. As another demonstration, a piece of paper, with a thickness of 0.1 mm and a weight of 0.03 g, was placed on a part of the sensor arrays (Fig. 4f). It was clearly observed that position-addressable resistance signals evolve under a tiny pressure on the specific positions where the paper substrate was located.
Footnotes |
† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available. See DOI: 10.1039/c9ra08461d |
‡ J. H. Kang and J. Y. Kim contributed equally to this work. |
This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2019 |