Yang Yia,
Juan Yaoa,
Wei Xua,
Li-Mei Wangb and
Hong-Xun Wang
*b
aCollege of Food Science & Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, PR China. E-mail: yiy86@whpu.edu.cn; Yaoj1995@163.com; xuwei1216@163.com
bCollege of Biology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, PR China. E-mail: wanghongxun7736@163.com; wanglimeiyx@163.com; Tel: +86 27 83955611
First published on 30th August 2019
Forty-one sunflower seed oil (SSO) products were collected to investigate their quality parameters before and after high-temperature and short-time (HTST) cooking, including peroxide value (PV), acid value (AV) and fatty acid (FA) composition. Their Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectra were then scanned to explore the parameter-FTIR characteristic relationship using chemometrics with multiple linear regression (MLR) analysis. The PV and AV of uncooked products were in the range of 1.49–6.29 mmol kg−1 and 0.04–0.31 mg g−1, with the variation coefficient of 36.47% and 146.82%, respectively. They were mainly composed of palmitic acid (2.39–3.33%), stearic acid (1.76–2.54%), oleic acid (10.02–24.77%) and linoleic acid (66.42–83.62%). The parameter changes caused by HTST cooking were slight. SSO products from different countries might have significantly different FA composition, especially linoleic acid content (P < 0.05), and those with different shelf times might differ in PV (P < 0.05). In addition, the FTIR spectra of cooked and uncooked SSO showed the similarity degree values ranging from 0.67 to 0.97 and 0.72 to 0.97, respectively. All the spectra exhibited the characteristic bands of –C–H, –CO, –C–O– and
CH2, in which 11 common bands as independent variables were selected to establish various FTIR characteristic–quality relationship models. The models of palmitic acid, oleic acid and linoleic acid were acceptable for their content predictions. Moreover, the cooked oils and uncooked oils could be completely distinguished by orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis due to the cooking-caused changes in FTIR spectrum. Production place and shelf time were the important factors related to the quality diversity of SSO, and FTIR spectroscopy combined with chemometrics was feasible for the simultaneous determination of various quality parameters.
The quality of edible oils has been reported to be associated with various factors, such as raw material, technology, additive, storage time and conditions.1,2,6–8 The oils of wild sunflower seeds harvested from several regions of Argentina showed significant differences in fatty acid (FA) profile, peroxide value (PV) and oxidative stability, as well as those of cultivated sunflower seeds.6 In addition, SSO products from the Italian market obviously differed in free acidity, PV, oleic acid content and linoleic acid content, due to the different farming systems of raw material and the different technologies of production.2 However, we know limitedly about the quality characteristics of SSO products in the Chinese market, especially the difference between homemade and imported products in consideration of the variations in raw material and technology and the potential effect of cross-border transportation on quality.
In the traditional Chinese cuisine, vegetable oils are used mostly for making vegetable salads, stir-frying, pan-frying and deep-frying.9 Stir-frying and pan-frying, which are both characterized with high-temperature and short-time (HTST), are most popular and frequent in the daily Chinese cooking.10 Because of relatively high PUFA content, SSO is vulnerable to thermo-oxidative degradation, which is directly related to the deterioration of quality. The quality changes of vegetable oils after cooking have attracted great attentions, particularly many efforts have been paid to investigate the influence of deep-frying (150–200 °C, ≥0.5 h) on the characteristics of SSO.7,11–13 However, the effect of HTST cooking is still unavailable.
Many analytical methods have been proposed for the quality control of edible oils, in which Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is a rapid, nondestructive and environmental-friendly technique widely used in research laboratories and food industry to characterize oils with specific bands or regions in spectrum.14,15 Certain FTIR bands have been applied for the qualitative determination of some parameters such as free FA, PV, saturated and monounsaturated acyl groups.16–19 In comparison, certain FTIR regions have been reported with more applications in the quality control using chemometrics methods, involving in adulteration, deterioration, authentication and quality prediction.20–23 The deep-frying-caused deterioration of SSO and its adulteration with deteriorated oils have been clearly defined by FTIR spectroscopy combined with chemometrics.15 To the best of our knowledge, there is no systematic investigation on the FTIR profile difference between SSO products and the relationship between FTIR characteristic and quality.
The present work aimed to preliminarily investigate the quality diversity of SSO products consumed in China, evaluate the effect of HTST cooking on their qualities, and explore the FTIR characteristic–quality relationship of SSO. Therefore, available SSO products in the Chinese market were collected. Their quality parameters, including PV, AV and FA, were analyzed before and after HTST cooking. Moreover, their common bands of FTIR spectrum confirmed by chemometrics analysis were used as independent variables to establish the multiple linear regression (MLR) models of various parameters. The availability of models used for the quality determination of SSO was further evaluated.
Sample code | Product information | Date of test (month/day/year) | Shelf timec (month) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Country | Date of production (month/day/year) | Shelf life (month) | Packaging volume (L) | Technologya | Quality gradeb | |||
a E, extraction technology; P, pressing technology; sample E8 marked ‘E&P’ is a mixed product composed of 75% pressing oil and 25% extracting oil.b The labeled grade is in accord with the national standard GB/T 10464-2017 of China, and ‘—’ means that the grade is unavailable.c ‘Shelf time’ means the time span between the dates of production and test of sunflower seed oil product. | ||||||||
A1 | Bulgaria | 03/05/2016 | 24 | 5 | E | — | 12/23/2017 | 22 |
B1 | Turkey | 08/10/2016 | 24 | 5 | P | 1 | 12/23/2017 | 17 |
B2 | Turkey | 01/03/2017 | 24 | 3 | P | — | 12/23/2017 | 12 |
B3 | Turkey | 12/03/2016 | 24 | 4 | P | — | 02/01/2018 | 14 |
C1 | Spain | 11/05/2016 | 24 | 2 | P | — | 02/01/2018 | 15 |
C2 | Spain | 09/28/2016 | 24 | 2 | E | — | 02/01/2018 | 16 |
C3 | Spain | 03/29/2016 | 24 | 1 | P | 1 | 03/27/2018 | 24 |
C4 | Spain | 07/11/2016 | 24 | 2 | P | — | 03/27/2018 | 21 |
C5 | Spain | 01/25/2016 | 24 | 1 | E | — | 03/27/2018 | 26 |
C6 | Spain | 06/29/2016 | 24 | 3 | E | — | 04/17/2018 | 22 |
C7 | Spain | 11/29/2016 | 24 | 3 | E | 1 | 04/17/2018 | 17 |
C8 | Spain | 08/01/2016 | 18 | 5 | E | — | 04/17/2018 | 21 |
C9 | Spain | 10/13/2016 | 24 | 5 | P | — | 07/03/2018 | 21 |
C10 | Spain | 12/10/2016 | 24 | 1 | E | 1 | 07/03/2018 | 19 |
C11 | Spain | 09/21/2017 | 24 | 1 | P | — | 01/03/2019 | 16 |
D1 | Italy | 10/05/2016 | 24 | 0.5 | P | 1 | 04/25/2018 | 19 |
E1 | Ukraine | 07/15/2016 | 24 | 0.87 | P | 1 | 04/25/2018 | 22 |
E2 | Ukraine | 11/15/2016 | 24 | 5 | P | — | 05/22/2018 | 18 |
E3 | Ukraine | 11/08/2016 | 24 | 5 | P | — | 05/22/2018 | 19 |
E4 | Ukraine | 03/20/2017 | 24 | 5 | P | — | 06/25/2018 | 15 |
E5 | Ukraine | 05/19/2017 | 24 | 5 | P | — | 07/03/2018 | 14 |
E6 | Ukraine | 06/09/2017 | 24 | 5 | P | — | 10/19/2018 | 17 |
E7 | Ukraine | 04/11/2017 | 24 | 1 | P | — | 10/19/2018 | 19 |
E8 | Ukraine | 11/23/2016 | 24 | 1 | E&P | — | 12/05/2018 | 25 |
E9 | Ukraine | 01/25/2017 | 24 | 1 | P | — | 12/05/2018 | 23 |
E10 | Ukraine | 05/09/2016 | 24 | 5 | P | 1 | 12/05/2018 | 30 |
E11 | Ukraine | 07/26/2016 | 24 | 5 | P | — | 12/13/2018 | 29 |
F1 | Kazakhstan | 11/07/2016 | 24 | 5 | P | — | 05/22/2018 | 19 |
F2 | Kazakhstan | 03/03/2017 | 18 | 5 | P | 1 | 12/13/2018 | 22 |
G1 | Belgium | 10/18/2016 | 18 | 1 | P | 1 | 06/25/2018 | 21 |
H1 | Russia | 05/22/2017 | 24 | 3 | P | — | 06/25/2018 | 13 |
H2 | Russia | 02/16/2017 | 24 | 1 | P | — | 10/19/2018 | 20 |
H3 | Russia | 08/26/2017 | 18 | 1 | P | 1 | 12/13/2018 | 16 |
H4 | Russia | 06/27/2018 | 18 | 1 | P | — | 01/03/2019 | 6 |
I1 | Germany | 07/08/2016 | 18 | 1 | P | — | 04/25/2018 | 22 |
I2 | Germany | 07/30/2018 | 24 | 0.75 | P | — | 01/03/2019 | 5 |
J1 | China | 01/14/2018 | 18 | 0.9 | P | 1 | 12/13/2018 | 11 |
J2 | China | 09/30/2018 | 18 | 5 | P | — | 12/19/2018 | 3 |
J3 | China | 10/31/2018 | 18 | 4 | P | — | 12/19/2018 | 2 |
J4 | China | 01/20/2018 | 18 | 1.8 | P | 1 | 12/19/2018 | 11 |
J5 | China | 09/04/2018 | 18 | 0.9 | P | 1 | 01/03/2019 | 4 |
Sample code | Peroxide value (mmol kg−1) | Acid value (mg KOH g−1) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Uncooked | Cooked | Uncooked | Cooked | |
a Values were expressed as means ± standard deviation (n = 3). | ||||
A1 | 2.2 ± 0.2 | 3.7 ± 0.8 | 1.18 ± 0.06 | 1.14 ± 0.02 |
B1 | 3.2 ± 0.2 | 4.1 ± 0.6 | 0.15 ± 0.01 | 0.16 ± 0.01 |
B2 | 2.4 ± 0.1 | 3.7 ± 0.5 | 0.05 ± 0.01 | 0.05 ± 0.01 |
B3 | 2.5 ± 0.3 | 2.8 ± 0.6 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.06 ± 0.01 |
C1 | 1.9 ± 0.1 | 2.5 ± 0.3 | 0.21 ± 0.01 | 0.20 ± 0.01 |
C2 | 2.7 ± 0.2 | 2.9 ± 0.3 | 0.10 ± 0.01 | 0.11 ± 0.01 |
C3 | 4.6 ± 0.4 | 5.9 ± 0.3 | 0.25 ± 0.01 | 0.25 ± 0.01 |
C4 | 3.4 ± 0.2 | 4.0 ± 0.3 | 0.25 ± 0.01 | 0.26 ± 0.01 |
C5 | 2.6 ± 0.2 | 3.8 ± 0.1 | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 0.04 ± 0.01 |
C6 | 2.5 ± 0.2 | 3.2 ± 0.3 | 0.12 ± 0.01 | 0.11 ± 0.01 |
C7 | 3.0 ± 0.3 | 3.4 ± 0.3 | 0.40 ± 0.01 | 0.40 ± 0.01 |
C8 | 2.7 ± 0.3 | 3.6 ± 0.2 | 0.18 ± 0.01 | 0.18 ± 0.01 |
C9 | 3.6 ± 0.3 | 4.3 ± 0.3 | 0.18 ± 0.01 | 0.18 ± 0.01 |
C10 | 4.6 ± 0.3 | 3.9 ± 0.3 | 0.32 ± 0.01 | 0.32 ± 0.01 |
C11 | 2.4 ± 0.4 | 2.1 ± 0.4 | 0.19 ± 0.03 | 0.21 ± 0.01 |
D1 | 2.7 ± 0.1 | 3.3 ± 0.2 | 0.02 ± 0.01 | 0.02 ± 0.01 |
E1 | 4.9 ± 0.3 | 4.9 ± 0.3 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.06 ± 0.01 |
E2 | 3.2 ± 0.3 | 4.2 ± 0.3 | 0.05 ± 0.01 | 0.05 ± 0.01 |
E3 | 2.8 ± 0.2 | 3.9 ± 0.3 | 0.09 ± 0.01 | 0.10 ± 0.01 |
E4 | 4.3 ± 0.1 | 4.5 ± 0.2 | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 0.08 ± 0.01 |
E5 | 2.1 ± 0.1 | 2.6 ± 0.2 | 0.09 ± 0.01 | 0.10 ± 0.01 |
E6 | 2.2 ± 0.2 | 3.2 ± 0.3 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.06 ± 0.01 |
E7 | 3.7 ± 0.3 | 4.1 ± 0.4 | 1.26 ± 0.01 | 1.28 ± 0.01 |
E8 | 4.1 ± 0.4 | 3.1 ± 0.2 | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 0.05 ± 0.01 |
E9 | 4.2 ± 0.2 | 3.8 ± 0.3 | 0.17 ± 0.01 | 0.17 ± 0.01 |
E10 | 2.0 ± 0.4 | 2.2 ± 0.2 | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 0.07 ± 0.01 |
E11 | 2.1 ± 0.2 | 2.9 ± 0.3 | 0.16 ± 0.01 | 0.16 ± 0.01 |
F1 | 6.3 ± 0.6 | 7.1 ± 0.5 | 0.31 ± 0.01 | 0.32 ± 0.01 |
F2 | 3.4 ± 0.2 | 4.1 ± 0.8 | 0.08 ± 0.01 | 0.09 ± 0.01 |
G1 | 5.6 ± 0.3 | 6.9 ± 0.4 | 0.10 ± 0.01 | 0.10 ± 0.01 |
H1 | 3.3 ± 0.6 | 4.0 ± 0.4 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.06 ± 0.01 |
H2 | 3.8 ± 0.3 | 4.0 ± 0.3 | 0.44 ± 0.01 | 0.44 ± 0.01 |
H3 | 2.4 ± 0.4 | 3.1 ± 0.3 | 0.09 ± 0.01 | 0.10 ± 0.01 |
H4 | 2.1 ± 0.4 | 1.7 ± 0.5 | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 0.04 ± 0.01 |
I1 | 5.2 ± 0.5 | 5.4 ± 0.6 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.07 ± 0.01 |
I2 | 2.1 ± 0.3 | 2.8 ± 0.6 | 0.03 ± 0.01 | 0.04 ± 0.01 |
J1 | 2.1 ± 0.1 | 2.9 ± 0.2 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.05 ± 0.01 |
J2 | 1.9 ± 0.2 | 1.8 ± 0.1 | 0.03 ± 0.01 | 0.03 ± 0.01 |
J3 | 1.5 ± 0.1 | 2.0 ± 0.1 | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 0.04 ± 0.01 |
J4 | 2.8 ± 0.5 | 2.8 ± 0.4 | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 0.04 ± 0.01 |
J5 | 2.0 ± 0.3 | 1.6 ± 0.4 | 0.05 ± 0.01 | 0.05 ± 0.01 |
Mean ± SD | 3.1 ± 1.2 | 3.6 ± 1.3 | 0.18 ± 0.27 | 0.18 ± 0.26 |
Sample code | C14:0 (‰) | C16:0 (%) | C16:1 (‰) | C18:0 (%) | C18:1n9c (%) | C18:1n9t (‰) | C18:2n6t (‰) | C18:2n6c (%) | C20:0 (‰) | C20:1 (‰) | C18:3n3 (‰) | C22:0 (‰) | C22:2 (‰) | C20:5 (‰) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
a Values were expressed as means ± standard deviation (n = 3). | |||||||||||||||
A1 | Uncooked | 0.52 ± 0.01 | 2.78 ± 0.01 | 1.97 ± 0.01 | 1.76 ± 0.01 | 18.59 ± 0.01 | 9.71 ± 0.06 | 1.36 ± 0.04 | 74.31 ± 0.01 | 1.43 ± 0.01 | 1.03 ± 0.11 | 1.96 ± 0.03 | 4.11 ± 0.01 | 1.66 ± 0.09 | 1.70 ± 0.04 |
Cooked | 0.52 ± 0.01 | 2.79 ± 0.01 | 1.99 ± 0.01 | 1.77 ± 0.01 | 18.64 ± 0.01 | 9.75 ± 0.05 | 1.32 ± 0.03 | 74.25 ± 0.01 | 1.43 ± 0.01 | 1.04 ± 0.04 | 1.97 ± 0.02 | 4.10 ± 0.01 | 1.76 ± 0.10 | 1.73 ± 0.04 | |
B1 | Uncooked | 0.46 ± 0.01 | 2.61 ± 0.01 | 1.88 ± 0.01 | 1.98 ± 0.01 | 19.59 ± 0.01 | 9.45 ± 0.04 | 2.42 ± 0.05 | 73.04 ± 0.02 | 1.50 ± 0.01 | 2.63 ± 0.02 | 2.03 ± 0.03 | 4.02 ± 0.02 | 1.93 ± 0.08 | 1.53 ± 0.02 |
Cooked | 0.46 ± 0.01 | 2.62 ± 0.01 | 1.89 ± 0.01 | 1.99 ± 0.01 | 19.61 ± 0.01 | 9.48 ± 0.02 | 2.40 ± 0.02 | 72.99 ± 0.01 | 1.51 ± 0.02 | 2.68 ± 0.04 | 2.09 ± 0.03 | 4.01 ± 0.01 | 1.87 ± 0.02 | 1.52 ± 0.02 | |
B2 | Uncooked | 0.41 ± 0.01 | 2.44 ± 0.01 | 1.17 ± 0.01 | 1.80 ± 0.01 | 14.77 ± 0.01 | 7.86 ± 0.03 | 2.19 ± 0.03 | 78.65 ± 0.01 | 1.36 ± 0.02 | 1.31 ± 0.01 | 1.90 ± 0.04 | 3.88 ± 0.01 | 1.93 ± 0.11 | 1.38 ± 0.06 |
Cooked | 0.41 ± 0.01 | 2.45 ± 0.01 | 1.17 ± 0.01 | 1.81 ± 0.01 | 14.83 ± 0.01 | 7.86 ± 0.03 | 2.19 ± 0.01 | 78.63 ± 0.02 | 1.35 ± 0.02 | 1.33 ± 0.02 | 1.91 ± 0.03 | 3.90 ± 0.01 | 1.34 ± 0.17 | 1.41 ± 0.01 | |
B3 | Uncooked | 0.52 ± 0.01 | 2.62 ± 0.01 | 1.60 ± 0.06 | 2.54 ± 0.02 | 24.77 ± 0.04 | 9.17 ± 0.07 | 11.62 ± 0.06 | 66.42 ± 0.07 | 2.07 ± 0.09 | 2.70 ± 0.09 | 2.28 ± 0.03 | 4.95 ± 0.02 | — | 1.55 ± 0.08 |
Cooked | 0.52 ± 0.01 | 2.61 ± 0.01 | 1.57 ± 0.01 | 2.53 ± 0.01 | 24.77 ± 0.03 | 9.13 ± 0.04 | 11.62 ± 0.04 | 66.43 ± 0.05 | 2.06 ± 0.01 | 2.70 ± 0.02 | 2.30 ± 0.03 | 4.99 ± 0.03 | — | 1.69 ± 0.04 | |
C1 | Uncooked | 0.47 ± 0.01 | 2.56 ± 0.01 | 1.42 ± 0.02 | 1.91 ± 0.01 | 17.09 ± 0.01 | 9.03 ± 0.01 | 1.73 ± 0.01 | 76.04 ± 0.02 | 1.40 ± 0.01 | 2.54 ± 0.01 | 2.05 ± 0.01 | 3.93 ± 0.01 | — | 1.46 ± 0.02 |
Cooked | 0.47 ± 0.01 | 2.57 ± 0.01 | 1.42 ± 0.01 | 1.92 ± 0.01 | 17.10 ± 0.02 | 9.06 ± 0.02 | 1.70 ± 0.03 | 76.02 ± 0.02 | 1.39 ± 0.01 | 2.54 ± 0.01 | 2.06 ± 0.01 | 3.90 ± 0.05 | — | 1.45 ± 0.03 | |
C2 | Uncooked | 0.53 ± 0.01 | 2.76 ± 0.01 | 2.19 ± 0.01 | 1.97 ± 0.01 | 18.23 ± 0.01 | 10.52 ± 0.02 | 5.20 ± 0.04 | 74.32 ± 0.01 | 1.49 ± 0.01 | — | 1.88 ± 0.01 | 3.86 ± 0.01 | — | 1.54 ± 0.05 |
Cooked | 0.53 ± 0.01 | 2.76 ± 0.01 | 2.20 ± 0.01 | 1.97 ± 0.01 | 18.23 ± 0.02 | 10.52 ± 0.01 | 5.22 ± 0.03 | 74.31 ± 0.02 | 1.48 ± 0.01 | — | 1.89 ± 0.01 | 3.86 ± 0.01 | — | 1.52 ± 0.01 | |
C3 | Uncooked | 0.46 ± 0.01 | 2.56 ± 0.01 | 1.39 ± 0.01 | 2.01 ± 0.01 | 16.14 ± 0.02 | 8.55 ± 0.01 | 5.61 ± 0.12 | 76.69 ± 0.08 | 1.42 ± 0.01 | — | 1.92 ± 0.02 | 3.97 ± 0.01 | 1.79 ± 0.08 | 1.49 ± 0.04 |
Cooked | 0.46 ± 0.01 | 2.57 ± 0.01 | 1.37 ± 0.01 | 2.00 ± 0.01 | 16.15 ± 0.02 | 8.55 ± 0.01 | 5.71 ± 0.09 | 76.61 ± 0.03 | 1.42 ± 0.01 | — | 1.89 ± 0.02 | 3.97 ± 0.02 | 1.83 ± 0.13 | 1.52 ± 0.01 | |
C4 | Uncooked | 0.42 ± 0.01 | 2.39 ± 0.01 | 1.02 ± 0.01 | 2.08 ± 0.01 | 15.38 ± 0.02 | 7.23 ± 0.01 | 6.32 ± 0.01 | 77.47 ± 0.02 | 1.40 ± 0.01 | 1.21 ± 0.01 | 1.89 ± 0.02 | 4.01 ± 0.01 | 1.85 ± 0.08 | 1.41 ± 0.01 |
Cooked | 0.42 ± 0.01 | 2.39 ± 0.01 | 1.02 ± 0.01 | 2.07 ± 0.01 | 15.38 ± 0.01 | 7.21 ± 0.02 | 6.33 ± 0.04 | 77.49 ± 0.02 | 1.39 ± 0.01 | 1.21 ± 0.01 | 1.89 ± 0.01 | 3.97 ± 0.02 | 1.85 ± 0.05 | 1.42 ± 0.01 | |
C5 | Uncooked | 0.44 ± 0.01 | 2.46 ± 0.01 | 1.26 ± 0.01 | 2.32 ± 0.01 | 15.81 ± 0.01 | 8.02 ± 0.03 | 3.81 ± 0.01 | 76.96 ± 0.02 | 1.62 ± 0.01 | 1.18 ± 0.04 | 1.76 ± 0.04 | 4.04 ± 0.02 | 1.06 ± 0.04 | 1.33 ± 0.01 |
Cooked | 0.44 ± 0.01 | 2.47 ± 0.01 | 1.26 ± 0.01 | 2.33 ± 0.01 | 15.84 ± 0.06 | 8.04 ± 0.02 | 3.79 ± 0.01 | 76.90 ± 0.14 | 1.64 ± 0.01 | 1.13 ± 0.01 | 1.73 ± 0.01 | 4.07 ± 0.01 | 1.16 ± 0.03 | 1.35 ± 0.02 | |
C6 | Uncooked | 0.47 ± 0.01 | 2.61 ± 0.01 | 1.43 ± 0.01 | 2.11 ± 0.01 | 16.00 ± 0.01 | 8.73 ± 0.03 | 3.28 ± 0.01 | 76.75 ± 0.01 | 1.56 ± 0.01 | 1.66 ± 0.02 | 1.82 ± 0.01 | 3.99 ± 0.01 | 1.12 ± 0.03 | 1.41 ± 0.01 |
Cooked | 0.47 ± 0.01 | 2.63 ± 0.02 | 1.45 ± 0.01 | 2.12 ± 0.01 | 16.08 ± 0.02 | 8.82 ± 0.06 | 3.25 ± 0.06 | 76.60 ± 0.04 | 1.58 ± 0.01 | 1.69 ± 0.09 | 1.82 ± 0.01 | 4.00 ± 0.02 | 1.17 ± 0.06 | 1.43 ± 0.01 | |
C7 | Uncooked | 0.51 ± 0.01 | 2.74 ± 0.01 | 1.92 ± 0.01 | 2.02 ± 0.01 | 18.02 ± 0.02 | 9.84 ± 0.04 | 6.02 ± 0.03 | 74.27 ± 0.02 | 1.55 ± 0.01 | 1.00 ± 0.05 | 1.89 ± 0.01 | 4.00 ± 0.01 | 1.14 ± 0.09 | 1.59 ± 0.01 |
Cooked | 0.52 ± 0.01 | 2.76 ± 0.01 | 1.93 ± 0.01 | 2.03 ± 0.01 | 18.10 ± 0.01 | 9.88 ± 0.02 | 6.06 ± 0.02 | 74.14 ± 0.01 | 1.57 ± 0.01 | 0.98 ± 0.02 | 1.91 ± 0.01 | 4.01 ± 0.01 | 1.16 ± 0.02 | 1.60 ± 0.01 | |
C8 | Uncooked | 0.44 ± 0.01 | 2.56 ± 0.01 | 1.44 ± 0.01 | 2.10 ± 0.01 | 19.68 ± 0.02 | 8.79 ± 0.03 | 7.56 ± 0.04 | 72.65 ± 0.04 | 1.63 ± 0.02 | 1.11 ± 0.03 | 2.05 ± 0.01 | 4.28 ± 0.02 | 1.11 ± 0.05 | 1.58 ± 0.01 |
Cooked | 0.44 ± 0.01 | 2.58 ± 0.01 | 1.44 ± 0.01 | 2.11 ± 0.01 | 19.74 ± 0.01 | 8.96 ± 0.04 | 7.56 ± 0.01 | 72.54 ± 0.02 | 1.62 ± 0.01 | 1.13 ± 0.04 | 2.08 ± 0.02 | 4.29 ± 0.01 | 1.19 ± 0.05 | 1.59 ± 0.01 | |
C9 | Uncooked | 0.57 ± 0.01 | 2.86 ± 0.01 | 1.70 ± 0.01 | 2.20 ± 0.01 | 15.91 ± 0.02 | 0.23 ± 0.01 | 5.43 ± 0.16 | 77.44 ± 0.01 | 1.33 ± 0.01 | 1.86 ± 0.01 | 0.89 ± 0.01 | 2.78 ± 0.02 | 0.33 ± 0.01 | 0.88 ± 0.01 |
Cooked | 0.57 ± 0.01 | 2.86 ± 0.01 | 1.71 ± 0.01 | 2.20 ± 0.01 | 15.91 ± 0.01 | 0.22 ± 0.01 | 5.53 ± 0.06 | 77.42 ± 0.01 | 1.32 ± 0.01 | 1.85 ± 0.02 | 0.89 ± 0.01 | 2.75 ± 0.01 | 0.32 ± 0.01 | 0.88 ± 0.01 | |
C10 | Uncooked | 0.58 ± 0.01 | 2.95 ± 0.01 | 2.02 ± 0.01 | 1.89 ± 0.01 | 18.57 ± 0.01 | 0.28 ± 0.01 | 7.10 ± 0.06 | 74.69 ± 0.02 | 1.19 ± 0.01 | 2.57 ± 0.01 | 1.00 ± 0.01 | 2.88 ± 0.02 | 0.35 ± 0.01 | 0.97 ± 0.01 |
Cooked | 0.61 ± 0.05 | 2.95 ± 0.01 | 2.02 ± 0.01 | 1.90 ± 0.01 | 18.60 ± 0.01 | 0.28 ± 0.01 | 6.96 ± 0.14 | 74.67 ± 0.03 | 1.19 ± 0.01 | 2.58 ± 0.01 | 1.00 ± 0.01 | 2.91 ± 0.01 | 0.35 ± 0.01 | 1.00 ± 0.01 | |
C11 | Uncooked | 0.49 ± 0.01 | 2.69 ± 0.04 | 1.38 ± 0.02 | 2.13 ± 0.01 | 19.34 ± 0.02 | 0.19 ± 0.01 | 7.00 ± 0.16 | 74.12 ± 0.01 | 1.25 ± 0.02 | 1.95 ± 0.04 | 0.76 ± 0.01 | 2.84 ± 0.10 | 0.34 ± 0.01 | 0.97 ± 0.03 |
Cooked | 0.49 ± 0.01 | 2.69 ± 0.03 | 1.38 ± 0.01 | 2.13 ± 0.01 | 19.38 ± 0.02 | 0.21 ± 0.01 | 7.26 ± 0.11 | 74.05 ± 0.01 | 1.26 ± 0.02 | 1.96 ± 0.02 | 0.78 ± 0.01 | 2.87 ± 0.07 | 0.35 ± 0.01 | 1.00 ± 0.02 | |
D1 | Uncooked | 0.43 ± 0.01 | 2.51 ± 0.01 | 1.13 ± 0.01 | 2.11 ± 0.01 | 16.46 ± 0.01 | 7.93 ± 0.04 | 2.80 ± 0.03 | 76.56 ± 0.03 | 1.50 ± 0.01 | 1.22 ± 0.04 | 1.90 ± 0.03 | 4.11 ± 0.01 | 1.23 ± 0.03 | 1.33 ± 0.01 |
Cooked | 0.43 ± 0.01 | 2.51 ± 0.01 | 1.14 ± 0.01 | 2.12 ± 0.01 | 16.46 ± 0.09 | 7.99 ± 0.01 | 2.83 ± 0.05 | 76.53 ± 0.02 | 1.49 ± 0.01 | 1.24 ± 0.03 | 1.92 ± 0.01 | 4.09 ± 0.01 | 1.32 ± 0.12 | 1.33 ± 0.01 | |
E1 | Uncooked | 0.45 ± 0.01 | 2.58 ± 0.01 | 1.21 ± 0.01 | 1.95 ± 0.01 | 14.05 ± 0.01 | 8.50 ± 0.06 | 3.08 ± 0.09 | 78.96 ± 0.02 | 1.45 ± 0.07 | 1.13 ± 0.02 | 1.82 ± 0.01 | 3.94 ± 0.05 | 1.52 ± 0.22 | 1.39 ± 0.06 |
Cooked | 0.45 ± 0.01 | 2.59 ± 0.01 | 1.21 ± 0.01 | 1.95 ± 0.01 | 14.04 ± 0.01 | 8.63 ± 0.02 | 3.02 ± 0.03 | 78.94 ± 0.01 | 1.41 ± 0.03 | 1.14 ± 0.01 | 1.83 ± 0.01 | 3.92 ± 0.01 | 1.78 ± 0.10 | 1.36 ± 0.01 | |
E2 | Uncooked | 0.42 ± 0.01 | 2.47 ± 0.01 | 1.09 ± 0.01 | 2.01 ± 0.01 | 14.28 ± 0.01 | 7.45 ± 0.02 | 5.61 ± 0.03 | 78.70 ± 0.01 | 1.42 ± 0.01 | 1.03 ± 0.01 | 1.84 ± 0.01 | 4.00 ± 0.02 | 1.17 ± 0.07 | 1.36 ± 0.04 |
Cooked | 0.42 ± 0.01 | 2.47 ± 0.01 | 1.09 ± 0.01 | 2.01 ± 0.01 | 14.30 ± 0.01 | 7.42 ± 0.03 | 5.65 ± 0.04 | 78.68 ± 0.01 | 1.41 ± 0.01 | 1.05 ± 0.02 | 1.87 ± 0.01 | 4.01 ± 0.01 | 1.08 ± 0.06 | 1.37 ± 0.06 | |
E3 | Uncooked | 0.42 ± 0.01 | 2.49 ± 0.01 | 1.25 ± 0.01 | 1.96 ± 0.01 | 14.97 ± 0.01 | 7.70 ± 0.03 | 3.81 ± 0.01 | 78.21 ± 0.01 | 1.42 ± 0.01 | 0.93 ± 0.01 | 1.86 ± 0.03 | 3.78 ± 0.01 | 0.99 ± 0.05 | 1.45 ± 0.04 |
Cooked | 0.42 ± 0.01 | 2.49 ± 0.01 | 1.25 ± 0.01 | 1.97 ± 0.01 | 14.98 ± 0.01 | 7.70 ± 0.02 | 3.80 ± 0.01 | 78.20 ± 0.01 | 1.42 ± 0.02 | 0.93 ± 0.02 | 1.84 ± 0.02 | 3.77 ± 0.01 | 0.99 ± 0.02 | 1.43 ± 0.01 | |
E4 | Uncooked | 0.43 ± 0.01 | 2.48 ± 0.01 | 1.10 ± 0.01 | 1.99 ± 0.01 | 15.02 ± 0.01 | 7.15 ± 0.10 | 2.76 ± 0.07 | 78.27 ± 0.02 | 1.39 ± 0.01 | 1.10 ± 0.01 | 1.83 ± 0.01 | 4.19 ± 0.01 | 1.13 ± 0.02 | 1.35 ± 0.02 |
Cooked | 0.43 ± 0.01 | 2.48 ± 0.01 | 1.10 ± 0.01 | 1.99 ± 0.01 | 15.03 ± 0.11 | 7.13 ± 0.07 | 2.74 ± 0.02 | 78.26 ± 0.01 | 1.38 ± 0.01 | 1.10 ± 0.07 | 1.83 ± 0.03 | 4.19 ± 0.01 | 1.12 ± 0.04 | 1.35 ± 0.03 | |
E5 | Uncooked | 0.51 ± 0.01 | 2.78 ± 0.01 | 1.30 ± 0.02 | 1.84 ± 0.01 | 17.38 ± 0.01 | — | 1.68 ± 0.07 | 76.76 ± 0.02 | 1.14 ± 0.01 | 3.00 ± 0.07 | 0.25 ± 0.01 | 3.07 ± 0.02 | 0.35 ± 0.01 | 1.04 ± 0.01 |
Cooked | 0.51 ± 0.01 | 2.78 ± 0.01 | 1.31 ± 0.01 | 1.86 ± 0.01 | 17.41 ± 0.01 | — | 1.66 ± 0.05 | 76.70 ± 0.03 | 1.16 ± 0.01 | 2.99 ± 0.08 | 0.24 ± 0.01 | 3.16 ± 0.02 | 0.36 ± 0.01 | 1.09 ± 0.01 | |
E6 | Uncooked | 0.44 ± 0.01 | 2.71 ± 0.02 | 1.20 ± 0.01 | 1.89 ± 0.01 | 16.81 ± 0.01 | — | 1.94 ± 0.09 | 77.48 ± 0.02 | 3.27 ± 0.12 | 2.36 ± 0.06 | — | 1.84 ± 0.03 | — | — |
Cooked | 0.43 ± 0.01 | 2.71 ± 0.02 | 1.30 ± 0.20 | 1.90 ± 0.01 | 16.85 ± 0.05 | — | 2.05 ± 0.18 | 77.37 ± 0.04 | 3.50 ± 0.08 | 2.51 ± 0.09 | — | 1.90 ± 0.03 | — | — | |
E7 | Uncooked | 0.44 ± 0.01 | 2.77 ± 0.01 | 1.25 ± 0.20 | 1.83 ± 0.03 | 14.73 ± 0.06 | — | 5.79 ± 0.19 | 79.20 ± 0.12 | 2.87 ± 0.65 | 1.92 ± 0.84 | 0.28 ± 0.01 | 1.89 ± 0.01 | — | 0.26 ± 0.08 |
Cooked | 0.44 ± 0.01 | 2.81 ± 0.02 | 1.50 ± 0.02 | 1.83 ± 0.01 | 14.74 ± 0.01 | — | 5.54 ± 0.43 | 79.14 ± 0.17 | 2.85 ± 0.72 | 1.94 ± 0.86 | 0.28 ± 0.01 | 1.90 ± 0.03 | — | 0.36 ± 0.01 | |
E8 | Uncooked | 0.46 ± 0.01 | 2.46 ± 0.04 | 1.09 ± 0.02 | 1.83 ± 0.01 | 13.50 ± 0.01 | — | 4.10 ± 0.09 | 80.93 ± 0.02 | 1.06 ± 0.02 | 1.76 ± 0.04 | 0.28 ± 0.01 | 2.63 ± 0.09 | 0.31 ± 0.01 | 0.93 ± 0.03 |
Cooked | 0.48 ± 0.01 | 2.51 ± 0.02 | 1.11 ± 0.01 | 1.84 ± 0.01 | 13.60 ± 0.14 | — | 4.16 ± 0.11 | 80.93 ± 0.08 | 1.04 ± 0.01 | 1.75 ± 0.01 | 0.28 ± 0.01 | 2.55 ± 0.01 | 0.31 ± 0.01 | 0.91 ± 0.01 | |
E9 | Uncooked | 0.50 ± 0.01 | 2.76 ± 0.01 | 1.26 ± 0.01 | 1.86 ± 0.01 | 14.85 ± 0.16 | 4.65 ± 0.15 | 6.84 ± 0.12 | 78.51 ± 0.10 | 1.12 ± 0.01 | 1.84 ± 0.01 | 1.34 ± 0.02 | 2.89 ± 0.03 | 0.35 ± 0.01 | 0.93 ± 0.03 |
Cooked | 0.49 ± 0.01 | 2.75 ± 0.03 | 1.25 ± 0.01 | 1.86 ± 0.01 | 14.79 ± 0.01 | 4.66 ± 0.15 | 6.77 ± 0.23 | 78.41 ± 0.05 | 1.13 ± 0.02 | 1.86 ± 0.03 | 1.33 ± 0.01 | 2.96 ± 0.09 | 0.35 ± 0.01 | 0.98 ± 0.03 | |
E10 | Uncooked | 0.52 ± 0.01 | 2.66 ± 0.02 | 1.29 ± 0.01 | 1.95 ± 0.01 | 14.58 ± 0.10 | — | 1.98 ± 0.01 | 79.75 ± 0.21 | 1.15 ± 0.02 | 1.82 ± 0.03 | 0.28 ± 0.01 | 2.85 ± 0.08 | 0.33 ± 0.01 | 0.96 ± 0.03 |
Cooked | 0.53 ± 0.01 | 2.67 ± 0.04 | 1.30 ± 0.02 | 1.95 ± 0.01 | 14.55 ± 0.11 | — | 1.93 ± 0.10 | 79.77 ± 0.01 | 1.16 ± 0.02 | 1.83 ± 0.03 | 0.29 ± 0.01 | 2.85 ± 0.11 | 0.33 ± 0.01 | 0.97 ± 0.04 | |
E11 | Uncooked | 0.52 ± 0.01 | 2.84 ± 0.01 | 1.38 ± 0.01 | 1.97 ± 0.01 | 14.09 ± 0.01 | 4.13 ± 0.14 | 0.20 ± 0.01 | 79.73 ± 0.03 | 1.18 ± 0.01 | 1.65 ± 0.01 | 0.57 ± 0.01 | 2.90 ± 0.01 | 0.31 ± 0.01 | 0.81 ± 0.01 |
Cooked | 0.53 ± 0.01 | 2.85 ± 0.01 | 1.38 ± 0.01 | 1.98 ± 0.01 | 14.19 ± 0.15 | 4.19 ± 0.03 | 0.20 ± 0.01 | 79.76 ± 0.07 | 1.18 ± 0.01 | 1.66 ± 0.01 | 0.55 ± 0.01 | 2.91 ± 0.01 | 0.32 ± 0.01 | 0.81 ± 0.01 | |
F1 | Uncooked | 0.38 ± 0.01 | 2.39 ± 0.01 | 0.87 ± 0.01 | 2.15 ± 0.01 | 10.02 ± 0.01 | 6.44 ± 0.05 | 0.73 ± 0.03 | 83.62 ± 0.01 | 1.35 ± 0.01 | 1.37 ± 0.05 | 1.53 ± 0.02 | 3.57 ± 0.01 | 0.91 ± 0.07 | 1.10 ± 0.01 |
Cooked | 0.38 ± 0.01 | 2.39 ± 0.01 | 0.87 ± 0.01 | 2.15 ± 0.01 | 10.02 ± 0.01 | 6.49 ± 0.01 | 0.73 ± 0.05 | 83.62 ± 0.01 | 1.35 ± 0.01 | 1.32 ± 0.03 | 1.52 ± 0.03 | 3.58 ± 0.01 | 0.96 ± 0.05 | 1.09 ± 0.01 | |
F2 | Uncooked | 0.48 ± 0.01 | 3.33 ± 0.02 | 1.10 ± 0.01 | 2.27 ± 0.02 | 11.95 ± 0.04 | 5.56 ± 0.24 | — | 78.65 ± 0.31 | 1.43 ± 0.01 | 27.10 ± 0.10 | 0.84 ± 0.01 | 2.40 ± 0.02 | 0.33 ± 0.01 | 0.60 ± 0.01 |
Cooked | 0.47 ± 0.01 | 3.31 ± 0.01 | 1.09 ± 0.01 | 2.26 ± 0.01 | 11.90 ± 0.01 | 5.55 ± 0.04 | — | 78.56 ± 0.10 | 1.42 ± 0.01 | 27.01 ± 0.03 | 0.84 ± 0.01 | 2.39 ± 0.01 | 0.33 ± 0.01 | 0.60 ± 0.01 | |
G1 | Uncooked | 0.43 ± 0.01 | 2.43 ± 0.01 | 1.20 ± 0.01 | 1.92 ± 0.01 | 16.61 ± 0.01 | 7.59 ± 0.04 | 4.82 ± 0.03 | 76.38 ± 0.02 | 1.42 ± 0.01 | 2.06 ± 0.03 | 2.04 ± 0.01 | 4.26 ± 0.01 | 1.30 ± 0.13 | 1.47 ± 0.05 |
Cooked | 0.43 ± 0.01 | 2.43 ± 0.01 | 1.20 ± 0.01 | 1.93 ± 0.01 | 16.65 ± 0.01 | 7.53 ± 0.04 | 4.82 ± 0.01 | 76.34 ± 0.01 | 1.42 ± 0.01 | 2.07 ± 0.01 | 2.07 ± 0.03 | 4.28 ± 0.02 | 1.21 ± 0.06 | 1.48 ± 0.06 | |
H1 | Uncooked | 0.42 ± 0.01 | 2.51 ± 0.01 | 1.53 ± 0.01 | 1.83 ± 0.01 | 17.10 ± 0.12 | 8.46 ± 0.01 | 1.87 ± 0.01 | 76.19 ± 0.01 | 1.45 ± 0.01 | 1.13 ± 0.05 | 2.00 ± 0.01 | 4.11 ± 0.02 | 1.11 ± 0.04 | 1.51 ± 0.01 |
Cooked | 0.42 ± 0.01 | 2.51 ± 0.01 | 1.53 ± 0.01 | 1.83 ± 0.01 | 17.12 ± 0.03 | 8.47 ± 0.04 | 1.86 ± 0.04 | 76.17 ± 0.01 | 1.45 ± 0.01 | 1.15 ± 0.04 | 1.99 ± 0.02 | 4.10 ± 0.01 | 1.07 ± 0.07 | 1.51 ± 0.01 | |
H2 | Uncooked | 0.33 ± 0.01 | 2.47 ± 0.02 | 0.82 ± 0.01 | 2.47 ± 0.01 | 10.95 ± 0.01 | — | 7.51 ± 0.18 | 82.12 ± 0.04 | 3.52 ± 0.14 | 5.63 ± 0.38 | 0.27 ± 0.01 | 1.80 ± 0.02 | — | — |
Cooked | 0.32 ± 0.01 | 2.47 ± 0.03 | 0.82 ± 0.01 | 2.47 ± 0.01 | 10.96 ± 0.01 | — | 7.53 ± 0.34 | 82.11 ± 0.05 | 3.51 ± 0.20 | 5.56 ± 0.36 | 0.26 ± 0.01 | 1.83 ± 0.05 | — | — | |
H3 | Uncooked | 0.46 ± 0.01 | 2.58 ± 0.01 | 1.39 ± 0.01 | 2.07 ± 0.01 | 20.85 ± 0.01 | 0.27 ± 0.01 | 9.59 ± 0.06 | 72.49 ± 0.13 | 1.24 ± 0.01 | 1.93 ± 0.01 | 0.94 ± 0.01 | 3.11 ± 0.01 | 0.33 ± 0.01 | 0.86 ± 0.01 |
Cooked | 0.46 ± 0.01 | 2.58 ± 0.01 | 1.39 ± 0.01 | 2.07 ± 0.01 | 20.85 ± 0.01 | 0.26 ± 0.01 | 9.57 ± 0.07 | 72.49 ± 0.02 | 1.24 ± 0.01 | 1.95 ± 0.02 | 0.95 ± 0.01 | 3.12 ± 0.01 | 0.33 ± 0.01 | 0.86 ± 0.01 | |
H4 | Uncooked | 0.58 ± 0.01 | 3.10 ± 0.01 | 2.37 ± 0.01 | 1.82 ± 0.01 | 24.25 ± 0.01 | 0.15 ± 0.01 | 2.30 ± 0.05 | 69.35 ± 0.01 | 1.25 ± 0.01 | 2.90 ± 0.01 | 0.41 ± 0.01 | 3.26 ± 0.01 | 0.38 ± 0.01 | 1.21 ± 0.01 |
Cooked | 0.59 ± 0.01 | 3.13 ± 0.03 | 2.39 ± 0.01 | 1.82 ± 0.01 | 24.27 ± 0.01 | 0.16 ± 0.01 | 2.29 ± 0.04 | 69.30 ± 0.04 | 1.23 ± 0.01 | 2.89 ± 0.01 | 0.42 ± 0.01 | 3.20 ± 0.06 | 0.37 ± 0.01 | 1.19 ± 0.02 | |
I1 | Uncooked | 0.46 ± 0.01 | 2.57 ± 0.01 | 1.35 ± 0.01 | 2.05 ± 0.01 | 16.26 ± 0.02 | 8.79 ± 0.04 | 4.17 ± 0.05 | 76.46 ± 0.02 | 1.56 ± 0.03 | 1.72 ± 0.01 | 1.99 ± 0.02 | 4.05 ± 0.01 | 1.14 ± 0.05 | 1.44 ± 0.01 |
Cooked | 0.46 ± 0.01 | 2.57 ± 0.01 | 1.36 ± 0.01 | 2.05 ± 0.01 | 16.27 ± 0.02 | 8.83 ± 0.08 | 4.17 ± 0.01 | 76.44 ± 0.03 | 1.55 ± 0.02 | 1.71 ± 0.01 | 1.98 ± 0.01 | 4.04 ± 0.01 | 1.20 ± 0.06 | 1.45 ± 0.01 | |
I2 | Uncooked | 0.51 ± 0.01 | 2.70 ± 0.02 | 1.52 ± 0.01 | 1.95 ± 0.01 | 22.63 ± 0.01 | 0.13 ± 0.01 | 1.65 ± 0.04 | 70.93 ± 0.01 | 1.27 ± 0.02 | 8.25 ± 0.02 | 0.34 ± 0.01 | 2.90 ± 0.06 | 0.34 ± 0.01 | 0.96 ± 0.02 |
Cooked | 0.51 ± 0.01 | 2.69 ± 0.02 | 1.52 ± 0.01 | 1.96 ± 0.01 | 22.66 ± 0.03 | 0.13 ± 0.02 | 1.65 ± 0.06 | 70.89 ± 0.01 | 1.28 ± 0.02 | 8.29 ± 0.07 | 0.34 ± 0.01 | 2.96 ± 0.08 | 0.34 ± 0.01 | 0.99 ± 0.04 | |
J1 | Uncooked | 0.51 ± 0.01 | 2.79 ± 0.01 | 1.38 ± 0.01 | 1.88 ± 0.01 | 15.77 ± 0.10 | 0.17 ± 0.01 | 3.27 ± 0.15 | 78.28 ± 0.09 | 1.13 ± 0.01 | 1.82 ± 0.01 | 0.61 ± 0.01 | 2.80 ± 0.01 | 0.30 ± 0.01 | 0.78 ± 0.01 |
Cooked | 0.52 ± 0.01 | 2.79 ± 0.01 | 1.39 ± 0.01 | 1.88 ± 0.01 | 15.72 ± 0.10 | 0.17 ± 0.01 | 3.40 ± 0.05 | 78.42 ± 0.26 | 1.13 ± 0.01 | 1.82 ± 0.01 | 0.62 ± 0.01 | 2.79 ± 0.01 | 0.32 ± 0.01 | 0.78 ± 0.01 | |
J2 | Uncooked | 0.54 ± 0.01 | 2.90 ± 0.01 | 1.82 ± 0.01 | 1.87 ± 0.01 | 19.33 ± 0.01 | 0.14 ± 0.01 | 2.96 ± 0.02 | 74.59 ± 0.01 | 1.19 ± 0.01 | 1.90 ± 0.01 | 0.50 ± 0.01 | 2.91 ± 0.01 | 0.33 ± 0.01 | 0.85 ± 0.01 |
Cooked | 0.54 ± 0.01 | 2.91 ± 0.01 | 1.83 ± 0.01 | 1.87 ± 0.01 | 19.36 ± 0.01 | 0.13 ± 0.01 | 2.95 ± 0.04 | 74.55 ± 0.02 | 1.19 ± 0.01 | 1.90 ± 0.01 | 0.50 ± 0.01 | 2.93 ± 0.01 | 0.33 ± 0.01 | 0.86 ± 0.01 | |
J3 | Uncooked | 0.53 ± 0.01 | 2.83 ± 0.01 | 1.55 ± 0.01 | 1.81 ± 0.01 | 16.42 ± 0.11 | 0.13 ± 0.01 | 2.37 ± 0.04 | 77.74 ± 0.10 | 1.13 ± 0.01 | 1.83 ± 0.01 | 0.44 ± 0.01 | 2.86 ± 0.02 | 0.32 ± 0.01 | 0.81 ± 0.01 |
Cooked | 0.53 ± 0.01 | 2.84 ± 0.01 | 1.55 ± 0.01 | 1.82 ± 0.01 | 16.44 ± 0.11 | 0.12 ± 0.01 | 2.28 ± 0.05 | 77.72 ± 0.11 | 1.12 ± 0.01 | 1.84 ± 0.01 | 0.44 ± 0.01 | 2.85 ± 0.01 | 0.33 ± 0.01 | 0.80 ± 0.01 | |
J4 | Uncooked | 0.51 ± 0.01 | 2.77 ± 0.01 | 1.34 ± 0.01 | 1.89 ± 0.01 | 15.88 ± 0.10 | 0.15 ± 0.01 | 3.89 ± 0.03 | 78.13 ± 0.10 | 1.14 ± 0.01 | 1.83 ± 0.01 | 0.59 ± 0.01 | 2.76 ± 0.02 | 0.32 ± 0.01 | 0.76 ± 0.01 |
Cooked | 0.51 ± 0.01 | 2.77 ± 0.01 | 1.34 ± 0.01 | 1.89 ± 0.01 | 15.97 ± 0.11 | 0.16 ± 0.01 | 3.93 ± 0.13 | 78.04 ± 0.09 | 1.14 ± 0.01 | 1.82 ± 0.01 | 0.60 ± 0.01 | 2.77 ± 0.01 | 0.32 ± 0.01 | 0.76 ± 0.01 | |
J5 | Uncooked | 0.47 ± 0.01 | 2.75 ± 0.02 | 1.30 ± 0.01 | 1.89 ± 0.01 | 12.96 ± 0.12 | 4.47 ± 0.06 | 0.20 ± 0.01 | 80.94 ± 0.20 | 1.15 ± 0.01 | 3.85 ± 0.89 | 0.63 ± 0.01 | 2.72 ± 0.06 | 0.32 ± 0.01 | 0.88 ± 0.01 |
Cooked | 0.48 ± 0.01 | 2.75 ± 0.02 | 1.30 ± 0.01 | 1.89 ± 0.01 | 12.95 ± 0.13 | 4.27 ± 0.03 | 0.20 ± 0.01 | 80.93 ± 0.09 | 1.15 ± 0.01 | 4.30 ± 0.82 | 0.64 ± 0.01 | 2.73 ± 0.04 | 0.32 ± 0.01 | 0.90 ± 0.01 |
The similarity degree of sample spectrum comparing to common model was calculated by the coefficient of correlation. The values of uncooked oils ranged from 0.67 to 0.97 (Fig. 1C), and those of cooked oils ranged from 0.72 to 0.97 (Fig. 1F). Based on the integrating of spectra performed with the slope value of 0.01, 11 common bands were selected, and their intensities were listed in Table 4. The spectral differences among the oils mainly appeared at 1464, 1379 and 1240 cm−1. The corresponding bands showed relatively higher coefficients of intensity variation (>18.08%) compared to others.
Sample | Intensity of common FTIR band [code/wavenumber (cm−1)] | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1/2924 | 2/2854 | 3/1745 | 4/1464 | 5/1400 | 6/1379 | 7/1240 | 8/1161 | 9/1099 | 10/966 | 11/724 | |
Uncooked sunflower seed oils | |||||||||||
A1 | 10.66 | 6.86 | 10.07 | 3.68 | 1.23 | 2.27 | 3.87 | 8.73 | 4.61 | — | 5.33 |
B1 | 10.70 | 7.00 | 10.38 | 3.87 | 1.32 | 2.35 | 3.99 | 8.96 | 4.74 | 1.80 | 6.36 |
B2 | 10.40 | 6.92 | 10.56 | 4.01 | — | 2.49 | 4.17 | 9.18 | 4.92 | 2.09 | 6.99 |
B3 | 10.55 | 6.72 | 9.70 | 3.37 | 1.04 | 2.11 | 3.79 | 8.67 | 4.53 | 1.56 | 5.40 |
C1 | 13.38 | 9.59 | 12.19 | 5.84 | 3.80 | 4.80 | 6.37 | 10.94 | 7.04 | 3.87 | 8.58 |
C2 | 11.49 | 7.33 | 10.10 | 3.79 | 1.94 | 2.99 | 4.58 | 9.14 | 5.52 | 1.99 | 7.25 |
C3 | 11.50 | 7.30 | 10.08 | 3.85 | 2.06 | 3.10 | 4.66 | 9.11 | 5.64 | 1.99 | 6.99 |
C4 | 11.43 | 7.32 | 10.30 | 4.04 | 2.18 | 3.20 | 4.79 | 9.29 | 5.72 | 2.20 | 7.39 |
C5 | 11.50 | 7.49 | 10.44 | 4.10 | — | 3.16 | 4.75 | 9.34 | 5.64 | 2.24 | 7.46 |
C6 | 10.26 | 6.20 | 9.18 | 3.08 | 1.11 | 2.12 | 3.67 | 8.21 | 4.57 | 1.11 | 4.98 |
C7 | 10.93 | 6.06 | 8.21 | 2.31 | 1.10 | 2.11 | 3.58 | 7.47 | — | — | 4.22 |
C8 | 11.03 | 6.19 | 8.31 | 2.44 | 1.14 | 2.19 | 3.61 | 7.53 | — | — | 4.23 |
C9 | 11.54 | 7.62 | 9.71 | 3.83 | 1.98 | 2.91 | 4.62 | 9.13 | 5.38 | 2.08 | 5.77 |
C10 | 10.23 | 6.25 | 8.48 | 2.68 | 0.79 | 1.74 | 3.54 | 8.13 | 4.37 | — | 4.77 |
C11 | 11.96 | 6.87 | 8.81 | 2.57 | 1.49 | 2.47 | 3.89 | 7.73 | — | — | 5.31 |
D1 | 10.79 | 6.75 | 9.23 | 3.33 | 1.42 | 2.42 | 4.15 | 8.80 | 5.08 | 1.65 | 5.80 |
E1 | 10.05 | 6.22 | 8.69 | 2.84 | 0.91 | 1.85 | 3.62 | 8.24 | 4.46 | — | 4.54 |
E2 | 11.50 | 6.79 | 9.13 | 3.39 | 1.96 | 2.96 | 4.45 | 8.44 | — | 1.35 | 4.67 |
E3 | 11.42 | 6.65 | 9.17 | 3.48 | 2.12 | 3.11 | 4.59 | 8.53 | — | 1.42 | 5.06 |
E4 | 10.83 | 6.75 | 9.01 | 3.30 | 1.41 | 2.31 | 3.96 | 8.42 | 4.83 | 1.34 | 4.52 |
E5 | 11.62 | 6.83 | 8.46 | 2.83 | 1.59 | 2.56 | 4.19 | 8.12 | — | 0.93 | 4.22 |
E6 | 10.31 | 6.71 | 9.79 | 3.62 | 1.49 | 2.43 | 3.90 | 8.52 | 4.76 | 1.54 | 5.06 |
E7 | 11.86 | 7.62 | 9.82 | 3.99 | 2.44 | 3.34 | 4.73 | 8.74 | 5.78 | 1.83 | 5.77 |
E8 | 9.80 | 6.17 | 9.63 | 3.16 | 1.00 | 2.00 | 3.57 | 8.44 | 4.48 | 1.22 | 4.88 |
E9 | 10.99 | 6.67 | 8.90 | 3.03 | 1.52 | 2.56 | 4.05 | 8.39 | 5.10 | 1.28 | 5.03 |
E10 | 12.04 | 6.97 | 8.56 | 2.85 | 2.11 | 3.10 | 4.58 | 8.27 | — | 1.09 | 5.37 |
E11 | 9.32 | 5.69 | 10.40 | 3.29 | 0.88 | 1.94 | 3.59 | 8.65 | 4.49 | 1.42 | 6.69 |
F1 | 12.01 | 6.98 | 9.43 | 3.99 | 2.95 | 3.87 | 5.27 | 8.91 | — | — | 5.81 |
F2 | 9.75 | 6.14 | 10.65 | 3.42 | 0.99 | 2.03 | 3.64 | 8.72 | 4.52 | 1.44 | 5.52 |
G1 | 10.21 | 6.48 | 9.03 | 3.30 | 1.07 | 2.02 | 3.71 | 8.43 | 4.42 | 1.40 | 4.67 |
H1 | 11.90 | 7.20 | 8.93 | 3.36 | 1.92 | 2.86 | 4.43 | 8.45 | — | — | 4.69 |
H2 | 10.88 | 6.97 | 9.83 | 3.73 | 1.96 | 2.85 | 4.31 | 8.64 | 5.35 | 1.72 | 5.43 |
H3 | 9.98 | 6.10 | 10.56 | 3.53 | 1.23 | 2.33 | 3.97 | 8.84 | 4.89 | 1.74 | 7.56 |
H4 | 10.89 | 6.25 | 8.74 | 2.38 | 0.67 | 1.76 | 3.28 | 7.60 | 4.26 | — | 4.41 |
I1 | 10.25 | 6.52 | 9.33 | 3.35 | 1.14 | 2.13 | 3.80 | 8.69 | 4.60 | 1.55 | 5.49 |
I2 | 12.70 | 7.21 | 8.84 | 2.59 | 1.86 | 2.79 | 4.21 | 7.74 | — | 0.38 | 5.35 |
J1 | 10.87 | 6.38 | 10.04 | 3.69 | 2.03 | 3.09 | 4.66 | 9.00 | 5.84 | 1.93 | 8.26 |
J2 | 11.15 | 7.19 | 10.41 | 3.87 | 1.50 | 2.51 | 4.09 | 8.93 | 4.91 | — | 5.22 |
J3 | 14.39 | 8.87 | 10.71 | 4.44 | 3.62 | 4.43 | 5.86 | 9.33 | — | 1.84 | 5.68 |
J4 | 16.47 | 9.95 | 10.80 | 4.76 | 5.98 | — | 7.01 | 9.51 | — | 2.02 | 6.04 |
J5 | 9.65 | 5.89 | 9.53 | 3.02 | 0.74 | 1.78 | 3.32 | 8.32 | 4.25 | 0.97 | 5.00 |
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Uncooked sunflower seed oils | |||||||||||
A1 | 10.69 | 6.94 | 10.25 | 3.80 | 1.33 | 2.38 | 3.99 | 8.87 | 4.73 | 1.75 | 5.92 |
B1 | 10.57 | 6.96 | 10.44 | 3.89 | — | 2.35 | 4.02 | 9.04 | 4.79 | 1.93 | 6.72 |
B2 | 10.39 | 6.83 | 10.48 | 3.88 | 1.37 | 2.39 | 4.06 | 9.06 | 4.91 | 1.92 | 6.53 |
B3 | 10.70 | 6.80 | 9.74 | 3.43 | 1.16 | 2.23 | 3.89 | 8.75 | 4.67 | 1.70 | 6.14 |
C1 | 11.25 | 7.22 | 10.19 | 3.84 | 1.91 | 2.94 | 4.60 | 9.20 | 5.46 | 2.03 | 7.01 |
C2 | 11.55 | 7.33 | 10.06 | 3.83 | 2.01 | 3.06 | 4.67 | 9.14 | 5.67 | 2.05 | 7.22 |
C3 | 11.70 | 7.53 | 10.36 | 4.09 | 2.27 | 3.28 | 4.86 | 9.34 | 5.81 | 2.25 | 7.61 |
C4 | 11.48 | 7.44 | 10.38 | 4.07 | 2.17 | 3.18 | 4.78 | 9.32 | 5.67 | 2.26 | 7.49 |
C5 | 11.56 | 7.60 | 10.63 | 4.29 | 2.29 | 3.30 | 4.89 | 9.50 | 5.75 | 2.42 | 7.68 |
C6 | 10.48 | 5.70 | 8.15 | 2.19 | 0.90 | 1.92 | 3.41 | 7.41 | — | 0.31 | 4.16 |
C7 | 10.99 | 6.18 | 8.34 | 2.44 | 1.16 | 2.19 | 3.62 | 7.58 | — | — | 4.45 |
C8 | 11.66 | 6.53 | 8.43 | 2.63 | 1.60 | 2.57 | 3.99 | 7.68 | — | 0.65 | 4.68 |
C9 | 10.25 | 6.28 | 8.60 | 2.75 | 0.91 | 1.84 | 3.62 | 8.19 | 4.49 | 1.10 | 4.45 |
C10 | 10.91 | 6.55 | 8.52 | 2.75 | 1.15 | 2.11 | 3.84 | 8.16 | 4.82 | — | 4.20 |
C11 | 12.56 | 7.31 | 9.02 | 2.80 | 1.88 | 2.83 | 4.23 | 7.92 | — | — | 5.38 |
D1 | 9.97 | 6.18 | 8.73 | 2.89 | 0.87 | 1.81 | 3.58 | 8.27 | 4.38 | — | 4.42 |
E1 | 10.60 | 6.77 | 9.11 | 3.20 | 1.34 | 2.26 | 4.03 | 8.61 | 4.82 | — | 5.09 |
E2 | 13.05 | 8.32 | 10.70 | 5.03 | 3.63 | 4.62 | 6.03 | 9.90 | — | 2.90 | 6.38 |
E3 | 11.55 | 6.75 | 9.15 | 3.46 | 2.11 | 3.09 | 4.59 | 8.51 | — | — | 4.61 |
E4 | 11.47 | 7.09 | 9.06 | 3.51 | 1.84 | 2.77 | 4.31 | 8.55 | 5.32 | 1.48 | 5.11 |
E5 | 11.96 | 6.85 | 8.31 | 2.74 | 1.76 | 2.70 | 4.31 | 8.00 | — | 0.81 | 4.24 |
E6 | 10.70 | 6.91 | 9.82 | 3.68 | 1.72 | 2.63 | 4.12 | 8.59 | 5.04 | 1.60 | 5.16 |
E7 | 12.49 | 7.93 | 9.87 | 4.09 | 2.87 | 3.75 | 5.13 | 8.82 | — | 1.93 | 5.97 |
E8 | 9.89 | 5.98 | 8.78 | 2.80 | 0.95 | 1.95 | 3.50 | 8.18 | 4.50 | 1.01 | 4.88 |
E9 | 11.35 | 6.70 | 8.63 | 2.80 | 1.62 | 2.65 | 4.14 | 8.25 | — | 1.16 | 5.14 |
E10 | 13.20 | 7.75 | 8.94 | 3.42 | — | 3.99 | 5.43 | 8.75 | — | 1.61 | 5.91 |
E11 | 9.24 | 5.54 | 10.37 | 3.23 | 0.83 | 1.92 | 3.57 | 8.62 | 4.50 | 1.42 | 6.99 |
F1 | 10.51 | 6.11 | 9.22 | 3.50 | 1.92 | 2.87 | 4.41 | 8.60 | 5.51 | 1.51 | 5.08 |
F2 | 9.49 | 5.87 | 10.52 | 3.26 | 0.85 | 1.92 | 3.53 | 8.59 | 4.44 | 1.35 | 5.08 |
G1 | 10.36 | 6.52 | 9.02 | 3.25 | 1.14 | 2.07 | 3.73 | 8.40 | 4.50 | 1.34 | 4.50 |
H1 | 14.25 | 8.33 | 9.06 | 3.75 | — | 4.23 | 5.69 | 8.71 | — | 1.50 | 5.19 |
H2 | 11.32 | 7.24 | 9.87 | 3.82 | 2.23 | 3.11 | 4.51 | 8.70 | 5.63 | 1.76 | 5.62 |
H3 | 10.46 | 6.15 | 10.36 | 3.47 | 1.53 | 2.59 | 4.19 | 8.76 | 5.27 | 1.66 | 7.83 |
H4 | 11.82 | 6.88 | 8.94 | 2.63 | 1.23 | 2.27 | 3.72 | 7.81 | — | — | 5.03 |
I1 | 10.55 | 6.64 | 9.26 | 3.33 | 1.32 | 2.31 | 4.03 | 8.77 | 4.86 | 1.66 | 5.78 |
I2 | 13.22 | 7.62 | 8.98 | 2.81 | 2.24 | 3.14 | 4.53 | 7.89 | — | 0.55 | 5.57 |
J1 | 10.84 | 6.24 | 9.93 | 3.64 | 2.11 | 3.18 | 4.75 | 8.98 | — | 1.86 | 8.04 |
J2 | 12.69 | 8.02 | 10.52 | 4.12 | 2.38 | 3.38 | 4.85 | 9.08 | 5.95 | — | 5.56 |
J3 | 15.50 | 9.42 | 10.70 | 4.55 | 5.20 | — | 6.43 | 9.36 | — | 1.86 | 5.75 |
J4 | 17.06 | 10.29 | 10.91 | 4.92 | 5.53 | — | 7.31 | 9.63 | — | — | 6.26 |
J5 | 10.02 | 5.88 | 9.08 | 2.60 | 0.71 | 1.72 | 3.25 | 7.93 | 4.28 | 0.62 | 5.11 |
To get an insight into the FTIR features responsible for the discrimination between uncooked and cooked oils, a score plot (Fig. 1G) and a loading plot (not shown) were formed by orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) using the ChemPattern software. The two groups were obviously separated. The FTIR bands mainly contributed to the separation distributed in the fingerprint region (650–630 cm−1), which was associated with the BV (out of plane) of O–H.23
Independent variables | Dependent variables | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Wavenumber (cm−1) | No standardized coefficient | Peroxide value (Y1) | Acid value (Y2) | Palmitic acid content (Y3) | Stearic acid content (Y4) | Oleic acid content (Y5) | Linoleic acid content (Y6) |
a ‘*’, ‘**’ and ‘***’represent the significance levels of P < 0.05, P < 0.01 and P < 0.001, respectively. | |||||||
— | Constant | 22.816** | 8.890*** | −1.041 | 3.193* | −42.842* | 145.315*** |
2924 | X1 | −0.692 | −0.613** | −0.054 | −0.142 | 9.608*** | −10.227*** |
2854 | X2 | −0.334 | 0.686** | 0.113 | 0.093 | −4.094 | 4.518 |
1745 | X3 | −1.684** | −0.015 | 0.467*** | 0.080 | −3.121** | 3.011* |
1464 | X4 | 2.457 | 0.541 | −0.882*** | −0.166 | 6.159* | −6.015* |
1400 | X5 | 0.067 | 0.028 | 0.021 | 0.004 | 0.121 | −0.081 |
1379 | X6 | −0.208 | 0.026 | 0.036 | 0.011 | −0.012 | 0.008 |
1240 | X7 | 1.086 | 0.489 | 0.204 | 0.251 | −18.557*** | 20.008*** |
1161 | X8 | −0.693 | −1.276*** | 0.209 | −0.184 | 6.557* | −7.916** |
1099 | X9 | 0.115 | −0.004 | 0.006 | 0.015 | −0.160 | 0.210 |
966 | X10 | 0.012 | −0.062 | −0.020 | 0.040 | 0.006 | −0.183 |
724 | X11 | −0.064 | 0.106 | −0.122** | −0.012 | 2.067*** | −1.923** |
Regression equation | Y1 = 22.816 − 0.692X1 − 0.334X2 − 1.684X3 + 2.457X4 + 0.067X5 − 0.208X6 + 1.086X7 − 0.693X8 + 0.115X9 + 0.012X10 − 0.064X11 | ||||||
Y2 = 8.890 − 0.613X1 + 0.686X2 − 0.015X3 + 0.541X4 + 0.028X5 + 0.026X6 + 0.489X7 − 1.276X8 − 0.004X9 − 0.062X10 + 0.106X11 | |||||||
Y3 = −1.041 − 0.054X1 + 0.113X2 + 0.467X3 − 0.882X4 + 0.021X5 + 0.036X6 + 0.204X7 + 0.209X8 + 0.006X9 − 0.020X10 − 0.122X11 | |||||||
Y4 = 3.193 − 0.142X1 + 0.093X2 + 0.080X3 − 0.166X4 + 0.004X5 + 0.011X6 + 0.251X7 − 0.184X8 + 0.015X9 + 0.040X10 − 0.012X11 | |||||||
Y5 = −42.842 + 9.608X1 − 4.094X2 − 3.121X3 + 6.159X4 + 0.121X5 − 0.012X6 − 18.557X7 + 6.557X8 + 0.160X9 + 0.006X10 + 2.067X11 | |||||||
Y6 = 145.315 − 10.227X1 + 4.518X2 + 3.011X3 − 6.015X4 − 0.081X5 + 0.008X6 + 20.008X7 − 7.916X8 + 0.210X9 − 0.183X10 − 1.923X11 | |||||||
Determination coefficient | 0.636*** | 0.562** | 0.687*** | 0.317 | 0.788*** | 0.763*** | |
Standard error of estimation | 0.996 | 0.230 | 0.153 | 0.175 | 2.05 | 2.30 | |
Mean value of residuals | 8.43 × 10−16 | −2.45 × 10−14 | −1.91 × 10−15 | −4.52 × 10−15 | 7.26 × 10−15 | −2.39 × 10−14 |
The model equations were further used for predicting of the quality parameters of SSO samples (S1–5) by calculating with their intensity values of common bands, as seen in Table 6. Their measured values of PV, AV, palmitic acid content, oleic acid content and linoleic acid content ranged from 1.3 to 5.2 mmol kg−1, from 0.14 to 0.27 mg KOH g−1, from 2.52% to 2.88%, from 16.33% to 16.77%, and from 76.90% to 77.45%, respectively. The relative errors of their predicted PV and AV had large ranges of variation (1.85–57.79% for PV and 1.36–288.57% for AV), by contrast, those of predicted palmitic acid content (3.45–18.03%), oleic acid content (0.83–17.83%) and linoleic acid content (0.10–4.72%) were acceptable. Their differences between the predicted value and the measured value were in accordance with the standard errors of estimation. The FTIR-based MLR models might provide a feasible solution for the FA analysis of SSO.
Wavenumber (cm−1) | Intensity of FTIR common bands | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
S1 | S2 | S3 | S4 | S5 | ||
2924 | 10.57 | 12.57 | 11.41 | 14.52 | 10.32 | |
2854 | 6.88 | 7.63 | 7.09 | 7.67 | 6.80 | |
1745 | 9.98 | 9.56 | 9.39 | 8.75 | 10.29 | |
1464 | 3.54 | 3.35 | 3.64 | 3.45 | 3.80 | |
1400 | 1.35 | 2.15 | 1.98 | 1.16 | 1.11 | |
1379 | 2.40 | 3.17 | 2.84 | 4.69 | 2.37 | |
1240 | 4.08 | 4.62 | 4.38 | 6.02 | 3.92 | |
1161 | 8.99 | 8.51 | 8.64 | 8.17 | 8.80 | |
1099 | 4.85 | 3.01 | 5.32 | 4.84 | 4.68 | |
966 | 1.69 | 1.44 | 1.50 | 1.51 | 1.76 | |
724 | 6.03 | 5.63 | 4.54 | 6.36 | 5.48 | |
Predicted values | Peroxide value (mmol kg−1) | 3.1 | 2.3 | 4.3 | 4.2 | 3.4 |
Acid value (mg KOH g−1) | 0.04 | 0.13 | 0.20 | 0.22 | 0.36 | |
Palmitic acid content (%) | 2.79 | 2.83 | 2.61 | 2.44 | 2.70 | |
Oleic acid content (%) | 17.82 | 19.91 | 16.69 | 15.08 | 16.91 | |
Linoleic acid content (%) | 76.55 | 74.33 | 78.25 | 81.29 | 77.44 | |
Measured values | Peroxide value (mmol kg−1) | 1.3 ± 0.3 | 2.8 ± 0.2 | 4.4 ± 0.2 | 4.9 ± 0.2 | 5.2 ± 0.3 |
Acid value (mg KOH g−1) | 0.14 ± 0.01 | 0.16 ± 0.01 | 0.18 ± 0.01 | 0.22 ± 0.01 | 0.27 ± 0.01 | |
Palmitic acid content (%) | 2.54 ± 0.01 | 2.54 ± 0.01 | 2.52 ± 0.01 | 2.88 ± 0.01 | 2.87 ± 0.01 | |
Oleic acid content (%) | 16.33 ± 0.01 | 16.36 ± 0.01 | 16.37 ± 0.01 | 16.77 ± 0.02 | 16.77 ± 0.01 | |
Linoleic acid content (%) | 76.96 ± 0.01 | 76.90 ± 0.01 | 76.95 ± 0.01 | 77.45 ± 0.37 | 77.36 ± 0.01 |
It has been widely recognized that the products of same vegetable oil might differ in chemical composition due to geographical, agronomic or technological differences. The seed oil of eight sunflower varieties, grown at 10 locations across Canada in 1963 and 14 locations in 1964, showed highly significant differences between varieties and between stations in the mean contents of stearic acid, oleic acid and linoleic acid, but the difference in palmitic acid content was not significant.34 Here, we make a between-group comparison on the quality of SSO products from different countries (Turkey, Spain, Ukraine, Russia and China) or produced by different technologies (Table 7). The products exhibited no significant difference between countries in PV, AV, stearic acid content, palmitic acid content and oleic acid content (P > 0.05). The linoleic acid contents of products from Ukraine and China showed no significant difference (P > 0.05), but were both higher than that of Turkish products (P < 0.05). Compared with pressing oils, extracting oils had an obviously higher mean value of AV (possibly due to the readily solubility of free FA in organic solvent) and a slightly lower mean value of PV (possibly due to the presence of larger amounts of antioxidants, such as tocopherols, phenolics and sterols).35
Factors | Sample number | Quality parameters | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Peroxide value (mmol kg−1) | Acid value (mg KOH g−1) | Palmitic acid content (%) | Stearic acid content (%) | Oleic acid content (%) | Linoleic acid content (%) | |||
a The between-group difference (P < 0.05) is indicated by different lowercase-letters. ‘Shelf time’ means the time span between the dates of production and test of sunflower seed oil product. | ||||||||
Producing country | Turkey | 3 | 2.7 ± 0.5 | 0.09 ± 0.06 | 2.56 ± 0.10 | 2.11 ± 0.39 | 19.71 ± 5.00 | 72.70 ± 6.12a |
Spain | 11 | 3.1 ± 0.9 | 0.20 ± 0.10 | 2.65 ± 0.17 | 2.07 ± 0.13 | 17.29 ± 1.54 | 75.58 ± 1.63ab | |
Ukraine | 11 | 3.2 ± 1.1 | 0.19 ± 0.36 | 2.64 ± 0.14 | 1.92 ± 0.07 | 14.93 ± 1.17 | 78.77 ± 1.14b | |
Russia | 4 | 2.9 ± 0.8 | 0.16 ± 0.19 | 2.67 ± 0.29 | 2.05 ± 0.30 | 18.29 ± 5.70 | 75.04 ± 5.49ab | |
China | 5 | 2.1 ± 0.5 | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 2.81 ± 0.06 | 1.87 ± 0.03 | 16.07 ± 2.27 | 77.94 ± 2.26b | |
Technology | Extracting | 7 | 2.9 ± 0.8 | 0.33 ± 0.39 | 2.70 ± 0.16 | 2.02 ± 0.18 | 17.84 ± 1.42 | 74.85 ± 1.52 |
Pressing | 33 | 3.1 ± 1.2 | 0.15 ± 0.22 | 2.66 ± 0.21 | 2.00 ± 0.18 | 16.40 ± 3.33 | 76.91 ± 3.48 | |
Shelf time (month) | 1–6 | 5 | 1.9 ± 0.3a | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 2.86 ± 0.16 | 1.87 ± 0.06 | 19.12 ± 4.58 | 74.71 ± 4.77 |
7–12 | 3 | 2.5 ± 0.4ab | 0.05 ± 0.01 | 2.67 ± 0.19 | 1.86 ± 0.05 | 15.47 ± 0.61 | 78.35 ± 0.27 | |
13–18 | 12 | 2.8 ± 0.7ab | 0.13 ± 0.10 | 2.63 ± 0.11 | 2.02 ± 0.19 | 18.21 ± 2.76 | 74.84 ± 3.32 | |
19–24 | 17 | 3.9 ± 1.2b | 0.30 ± 0.36 | 2.65 ± 0.24 | 2.04 ± 0.17 | 15.36 ± 2.58 | 77.57 ± 2.65 | |
25–30 | 4 | 2.7 ± 1.0ab | 0.08 ± 0.06 | 2.61 ± 0.18 | 2.02 ± 0.21 | 14.50 ± 0.98 | 79.34 ± 1.68 |
A previous study indicated that the PV and AV of SSO significantly increased after long-time storage.8 The similar results were confirmed in the present work, i.e. the PV and AV increased with the prolonging of shelf time which was identified as the time span between the dates of production and test (Table 7). Especially, products shelved 19–24 months had a higher mean value of PV compared to those shelved 1–6 months (P < 0.05). The shelf time-related deterioration of SSO depended to a great extent on the temperature of storage, the exposure to light, the impermeability of container to oxygen and the level of antioxidants.8,36 Products stored for longer time would suffer more negative effects by auto-oxidation and photo-oxidation, as well as more consumption of antioxidants. It was reported that the α-tocopherol level fell by around 90% in olive oil after 9 month storage at 20 °C.36 Moreover, free FA resulted from the hydrolysis of triacylglycerols could catalyze the further hydrolysis reaction, leading to the increase of susceptibility to hydrolytic rancidity.36 Generally, the FA composition of vegetable oils remained more or less constant during storage regardless of the storage conditions.36–38 This work indicated that the shelf time showed no obvious relationship with the differences in FA composition as seen in Table 7.
HTST cooking would cause slight changes in the intensity of bands appeared at 2924, 2854, 1379, 1240 and 966 cm−1. The minor decrease of 1745 cm−1 band intensity might respond to the variation in chain length, unsaturation degree and form of the acyl groups because of the production of hydroperoxides, acids or other oxidation products during the heating process.20 The bands at 2924 and 2854 cm−1, which were known as the absorption zone of C–H stretching vibration of methylene and terminal methyl groups of FA chains, would be changed because of the production of functional groups of saturated aldehydes or other secondary oxidation products by heating.18 The increased absorption at 966 cm−1 after cooking might be due to the C–H out-of-plane deformation of isolated trans double bonds or some trans conjugated unsaturated fatty acids, and the decreased absorption at 1745 cm−1 might be related to the degradation of esters.39
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