Hongfang
Li
,
Shuiying
Gao
,
Zhaoliang
Zheng
and
Rong
Cao
*
State Key Laboratory of Structural Chemistry, Fujian Institute of Research on the Structure of Matter, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Fujian, Fuzhou, 350002, P. R. China. E-mail: rcao@fjirsm.ac.cn; Fax: +86 591 83796710; Tel: +86 591 83796710
First published on 12th August 2011
Layer-by-layer assembly of polyelectrolyte–gold nanoparticles (NPs) multilayer films on Fe3O4–silica core–shell microspheres provides a convenient method to design a bifunctional hybrid composite combining the catalytic and magnetic performance together. The Au NPs are effectively immobilized in the polyelectrolyte layer without blocking the catalytic sites. The obtained hybrid magnetic microspheres exhibit high catalytic performance in both organic and inorganic reduction reactions. The use of magnetic support for the immobilization of Au NPs guarantees facile, clean, fast and efficient separation of the catalyst at the end of the reaction cycle.
Although noble metallic NPs are attractive for catalysis because of their large surface area-to-volume ratio,5 aggregation often accrues among them, which will greatly reduce the catalytic activity and selectivity.6 To overcome this problem, the catalytic NPs are usually immobilized on various solid supports such as carbon, metal oxides, and zeolites.7 However, as the size of the support decreases, separation using physical methods, such as filtration or centrifugation, becomes difficult and time-consuming. Magnetic separation can be considered an effective and environmentally benign separation approach, since it minimizes the use of auxiliary substances and energy for achieving catalyst recovery.8 To improve the thermal and chemical stability, solubility and biocompatibility of the support, the Fe3O4 magnetic particles were usually coated with a SiO2 shell to form a core–shell Fe3O4@SiO2 structure. Many methods have been explored to immobilize noble metal NPs on Fe3O4@SiO2 magnetic support. The most widely used method is directly planting –NH2 or –SH groups on the silica shell, which acted as anchor to coordinate with ionic or metallic NPs.9 This protocol is facile to conduct, but it is hard to control the size and morphology of the metal NPs. The other method is to grow organic functional networks such as PAMAM dendrimers on the surface of silica to stabilize metal NPs.10 Although the organic networks exhibit many advantages, the tedious operation steps and long synthetic period do not meet the large-scale application.
The LbL assembly has been developed into a general and efficient approach used in a variety of application fields.11 It was originally based on alternate adsorption of oppositely charged polyelectrolytes on solid surfaces from their solutions. Lee et al. firstly reported the assembly of PAA and PEI-Pd(II) multilayer films on magnetic particles.12 However, only 2/3 of the Pd(II) ions were reduced to metallic Pd NPs, and the loading amount of Pd NPs is relatively small. To overcome such shortcomings, we improved the LbL technique using pre-synthesized Au NPs as metal source instead of ionic metal. The Au NPs with controlled size and shape were synthesized and negatively charged in advance. Then the positive PEI polyelectrolyte and the negative Au NPs were consecutively deposited onto the Fe3O4@SiO2 microspheres to construct a magnetic and catalytic bifunctional composite. The formation of Au NPs prior to their immobilization allows for control over the particle size and shape to yield remarkably active catalyst. Moreover, the loading amount of the noble metal NPs can be readily controlled through adjusting the number of PEI–Au bilayers.
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Fig. 1 TEM images of (a, b) Fe3O4 particles, (c, d) Fe3O4@SiO2 microspheres, (e) Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 microspheres (f) Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)5 microspheres. Inset (a) and (f) are the HRTEM images for the Fe3O4 particles and Fe3O4@SiO2@ (PEI–Au)5 microspheres, respectively. |
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Fig. 2 SEM images of (a) Fe3O4 particles, (c) Fe3O4@SiO2 microspheres, (d) Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 microspheres, and (b) size distribution histogram of the Fe3O4 particles. Inset (a), (c), (d) are high-magnification SEM images, respectively. |
To deposit Au NPs, a versatile LbL assembly was used for the adsorption of PEI–Au multilayer films on to the Fe3O4@SiO2 magnetic microspheres. The assemble process were monitored by FT-IR spectra, as shown in Fig. 3a. The band at 580 cm−1 is assigned to the vibration of the Fe–O bonds for Fe3O4 particles. After coating a SiO2 shell, a new band at 1100 cm−1 appears which is assigned to the vibration of the Si–O bonds. After assembly of PEI–Au multilayer films, two obvious bands at 2860 and 2927 cm−1 appear associated with C–H stretching of the PEI polyelectrolyte backbone (see Fig. S1†). With the growth of PEI–Au bilayers, the intensity of Fe–O and Si–O bands reduces, because the polyelectrolyte multilayer films are very effective at screening the Fe–O and Si–O bands. The same phenomenon has also been reported elsewhere.16 However, the intensity of the C–H bands exhibits a slight increase conversely, suggesting the successful assembly of PEI–Au multilayer films on Fe3O4@SiO2 microspheres. The pre-synthesized Au NPs have a uniform size of ∼12 nm (Fig. S2†) and they are negative due to the capping citrate groups. Resultantly, the Au NPs are strongly attracted to the PEI polycations through electrostatic interactions, which makes the assembly of PEI–Au multilayer films feasible and effective. TEM image of the Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 microspheres (Fig. 1e) clearly shows that the Au NPs are deposited on the surface of the Fe3O4@SiO2 microspheres. Since the Au NPs are deposited in different PEI layers, the distance from the Au NPs to the Fe3O4@SiO2 microspheres is not equal. Owing to the low contrast, the PEI polycations confirmed by FT-IR could hardly be detected by TEM. Remarkably, the loading amount of Au NPs can be readily regulated through controlling the assembly number of PEI–Au bilayers. The Au content determined by ICP shows a linear increase with the growth of PEI–Au bilayers (see Fig. S3†). When the assembly number of PEI–Au bilayers reduced to 5, the Au NPs deposited on the Fe3O4@SiO2 microspheres are much more sparse compared with Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 sample (Fig. 1f). The HRTEM image clearly indicates that the Fe3O4 core and Au NPs are both highly crystallized (inset Fig. 1f). The SEM image for Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 sample shows that the regular spherical shape is preserved (Fig. 2d) and some Au NPs are scattered on the surface of the Fe3O4@SiO2 microspheres (inset Fig. 2d). UV-vis absorption spectra (Fig. 3b) of Au colloids solution show a maximum absorbance at 520 nm, characteristic of the Au NPs with the size of 12–15 nm in aqueous solution.17 In contrast, the Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 microspheres dispersion exhibits a broad adsorption band at ∼715 nm, indicating a red shift of about 194 nm, due to the deposition of Au NPs in PEI polyelectrolyte.18 The crystalline structures of the Fe3O4 particles and the magnetic hybrids were determined by XRD. As presented in Fig. 3c, the characteristic diffraction peaks can be observed for Fe3O4 particles, indicating their well crystallized structure. After coating a SiO2 shell, a new broad peak around 23° appears because of the existence of amorphous silica. For Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 microspheres, new peaks indexed to a fcc Au crystal are observed, confirming the successful deposition of Au NPs. The representative EDS spectrum for Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 sample also confirms the existence of Fe, Si and Au elements, which is consistent with TEM and XRD results (Fig. 3d).
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Fig. 3 (a) FT-IR spectra of (1) Fe3O4, (2) Fe3O4@SiO2, (3) Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)5, (4) Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)8, and (5) Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10; (b) UV-vis spectra of (1) Au colloids aqueous dispersion and (2) Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 microspheres aqueous dispersion; (c) XRD patterns of (1) Fe3O4, (2) Fe3O4@SiO2, and (3) Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 microspheres; (d) representative EDS spectrum of Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 microspheres. |
The magnetic properties of the hybrid composites were studied by a vibrating sample magnetometer at 300 K, which is shown in Fig. 4a. The magnetic curves show that all the samples are superparamagnetic at room temperature. No remanence or coercivity is detected due to the fact that the Fe3O4 particles are composed of ultrafine magnetic nanocrystals. The saturation magnetization value of Fe3O4, Fe3O4@SiO2 and Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 are 80.8, 60.2 and 56.5 emu g−1, respectively. The Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 sample shows a (∼6.1%) decrease in the mass magnetization compared with the Fe3O4@SiO2 sample, which is consistent with the amount of non-magnetic PEI polyelectrolyte and Au NPs (5.7%) deposited on the Fe3O4@SiO2 microsphere. Though, the saturation magnetization shows a decrease after deposition the SiO2 shell and PEI–Au multilayer films, the hybrid composite can still be separated quickly from the solution, within 30 s, using a magnet (see Fig. 4b). This promises a facile magnetic separation for their practical application in catalysis. Moreover, the superparamagnetic property helps to prevent the Au-loaded magnetic microspheres from aggregation, which is also important for maximizing the exposure of the catalyst for efficient liquid phase catalysis.
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Fig. 4 (a) The magnetic hysteresis loops of (1) Fe3O4, (2) Fe3O4@SiO2, (3) Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10; (b) The separation process of Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 microspheres from solution with a magnet. |
We firstly chose the reduction of 4-NP in the presence of NaBH4 as a model system to demonstrate the catalytic performance of the hybrid microspheres as a recoverable catalyst. We are aware of the fact that nitrophenols are among the most common organic pollutants in industrial and agricultural waste water.19 However, 4-AP is an important intermediate for the manufacture of analgesic and antipyretic drugs. So the study on the reduction of 4-NP to 4-AP becomes much more fascinating both from the point of pollution abatement and industrial application. The reduction can be achieved by catalytic hydrogenation of 4-NP in ethanol at relatively high temperature and high hydrogen pressure.20 However, due to reasons of energy saving, safe operation, and avoiding the use of organic solvents, it may be interesting and meaningful to develop the process for the conversion of 4-NP to 4-AP in aqueous solution under mild conditions. Moreover, the substrates and products of this reaction can be easily detected by spectroscopic methods, and there is no appreciable byproduct formation.
Fig. 5 shows the UV-vis spectra for the reduction of 4-NP measured at 5 min intervals during the progress of the reaction with and without the Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 catalyst. Since the concentration of the Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 microspheres in the reaction system is very low, the measurement of the absorption spectra of 4-NP and the reduction product 4-AP was not disturbed by the light scattering of the catalyst particles. As the concentration of BH4− ion, used as reductant, largely exceeds that of 4-NP, it remained essentially constant throughout the reaction. Therefore, the successive decrease of peak density at 400 nm with time can be used to calculate the rate constant.21 This peak is attributed to the presence of 4-nitrophenolate ions in alkaline condition caused by the addition of NaBH4. Without a Au catalyst, such a peak shows a slight change with time (see Fig. 5a), which suggests that the reduction reaction proceeds extremely slowly without a catalyst, which is in accordance with the previous reports.21,22 However, when a small amount of Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 catalyst was introduced, the 4-nitrophenolate ion peak at 400 nm depletes dramatically with time and a new 4-AP peak at 300 nm appears concomitantly (Fig. 5b). After 20 min, the original bright-yellow solution becomes visually colorless and the reaction is almost completed. As the concentration of NaBH4 was used in excess, the reaction can be considered to be a pseudo first order and the apparent rate constant is calculated by plotting the −lnA400 (negative logarithm of the absorbance at 400 nm) vs. time. The plots (inset Fig. 5a and b) both show nearly straight lines and the apparent rate constants values are calculated to be (2.95 ± 0.40) × 10−3 and 0.271 ± 0.028 min−1 in absence and presence of Au catalyst, respectively. After addition of the Au catalyst, the apparent rate constant is nearly 92 fold. The Au NPs used in the catalysis is 7.5 × 10−4 mmol and correspondingly the normalized rate constant (knor) for this reaction is calculated to be 6.02 mmol−1 s−1 (see entry 1 in Table 1). Such a value is much higher than the recently reported normalized rate constant of 2.04 mmol−1 s−1.23
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Fig. 5 Spectral change of 4-NP during the reaction between 4-NP and NaBH4 at 25 °C without (a) and with (b) Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 catalyst. The insets are the corresponding pseudo-first-order plot of −lnA400versus time. |
Reactions | Entry | Substrates | T (°C) | Au used (mmol) | Absence of Au | Presence of Au | k nor (mmol−1 s−1) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
k (min−1) | Error σ | k (min−1) | Error σ | ||||||
Organic reduction reactions | 1 | 4-NP | 25 | 0.75 × 10−3 | 2.95 × 10−3 | 3.98 × 10−4 | 0.271 | 0.028 | 6.02 |
2 | 3-NP | 3.35 × 10−3 | 5.82 × 10−4 | 0.044 | 0.003 | 0.98 | |||
3 | 2-NP | 3.10 × 10−3 | 3.15 × 10−4 | 0.11 | 0.012 | 2.44 | |||
4 | 2-CH3-4-NP | 3.50 × 10−3 | 1.23 × 10−4 | 0.042 | 0.005 | 0.93 | |||
5 | 3-CH3-4-NP | 3.31 × 10−3 | 4.66 × 10−4 | 0.032 | 0.001 | 0.07 | |||
6 | 2-Cl-4-NP | 3.24 × 10−3 | 4.43 × 10−4 | 0.053 | 0.002 | 1.17 | |||
Inorganic reduction reaction | 7 | K3Fe(CN)6 | 40 | 1 × 10−3 | 2.36 × 10−4 | 0.56 × 10−4 | 1.97 × 10−3 | 0.88 × 10−4 | 0.033 |
The catalytic reduction was also successful in the cases of other nitrophenols, such as 3-NP, 2-NP and so on (entries 2–6 in Table 1). Without catalysts, the reduction reactions of nitrophenols can not proceed smoothly. However, the rate constant values increased greatly after addition of a small amount of the Au catalysts. In the experiments, when a freshly prepared aqueous solution of NaBH4 was added to the reaction mixture containing an aqueous solution of nitrophenol and Au catalyst, nitrophenolate ions were formed; these could be visualized by the red shifting of the peak by 60–85 nm. The formation and stability of nitrophenolate ion have great influence on the rate of reduction.
It is well known that 4- and 2-nitrophenolate ions are more stable than the 3-nitrophenolate ion.24 In the case of 4-nitrophenolate ion, the “negative” charge on oxygen is delocalized throughout the benzene ring (conjugation effect) and becomes resonance-stabilized. In the 2-nitrophenolate ion, the “negative” charge on oxygen is also delocalized throughout the benzene ring but not so effectively as in the 4-nitrophenolate ion. The –I effect (inductive effect) of the nitro group is also present, but due to steric hindrance it is less effective and therefore less stable than former isomer. In the 3-nitrophenolate ion, there is no conjugation effect, only the –I effect of the nitro group is present. Therefore, the rate of reduction of the nitrophenols followed the order 4-NP > 2-NP > 3-NP, which is in accordance with our results (see Table 1). From entries 4–6, it can be seen that the reduction rate of 4-NP decreased dramatically no matter the electron acceptor (Cl) or electron donor (CH3) substituent groups were introduced in the ortho- and meta-position because of the steric hindrance.
In addition, the catalytic activity is found to be relevant to the assembly number of the PEI–Au bilayers in our work. For the 4-NP reduction reaction, the apparent rate constant value increases slightly with the growth of PEI–Au bilayers on the magnetic microspheres, which can be seen in Fig. S4.† The mechanism for such an increase in catalytic activity is currently not very clear. Maybe the particular structure of the hybrid composite is beneficial for the catalysis. The PEI polyelectrolyte multilayers assembled on the Fe3O4@SiO2 microspheres exhibit a porous structure and therefore the Au NPs deposited in the PEI polyelectrolyte are readily accessible to 4-NP and BH4−. So the catalytic activity increases slightly when more PEI–Au bilayers are assembled. Such a result is consistent with the previous report, where the conversion percent of 4-NP increased as a function of the number of bilayers deposited for the PEI–Au NPs films.15 Hereafter, we use Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 catalyst to investigate the catalytic performance in inorganic reduction reaction as well as the reusability of such a catalyst.
The aforesaid discussion indicates that the obtained Au catalyst in our work exhibits great catalytic performance in the organic reduction reaction of various nitrophenols by NaBH4. However, it is noteworthy that reports are rare on the application of Au catalysts in the inorganic reduction reaction of Fe(CN)63− to Fe(CN)64− by S2O32−.25 Thus, the catalytic property of Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 catalyst was also tested in the typical redox reaction between Fe(CN)63− and S2O32− at 40 °C in our work. The optical spectra of solution in absence and presence of the Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 catalyst was also monitored with respect to time using UV-vis adsorption spectrometer and the results are presented in Fig. 6. The reaction did not occur in absence of catalyst and no obvious spectral change is observed over 90 min (Fig. 6a). After introduction of the Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 catalyst, the Fe(CN)63− peak at 420 nm shows a gradual decrease with respect to time, indicating the reduction reaction proceeds smoothly (Fig. 6b). The apparent rate constant value is calculated to be (1.97 ± 0.088) × 10−3 min−1 (inset Fig. 6b) from the slope of the plot of −lnA420 against time. Such a value is almost 8 times as high as the rate constant value of the blank reaction without Au catalyst (inset Fig. 6a). The corresponding normalized rate constant (knor) is calculated to be 0.033 mmol−1 s−1 (entry 7 in Table 1), which is much lower than that of the 4-NP reduction reaction. Such results are consistent with the previous report, in which the Au NPs also exhibited better catalytic performance in 4-NP system than in Fe(CN)63− system.23
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Fig. 6 Spectral change of Fe(CN)63− during the reaction between Fe(CN)63− and S2O32− at 40 °C without (a) and with the Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 catalyst. The insets are the corresponding pseudo-first-order plot of −lnA420versus time. |
Separation of expensive catalytic NPs from the reaction mixture and regeneration of their catalytic properties are very difficult and becoming big issues to the industry. Notably, the synthesized Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)n catalysts in our work can be separated simply with a magnet within 30 s and reused several times by washing with ultrapure water followed by drying at 50 °C. To confirm this, 5 cycles of the above two reactions were performed with Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 as the catalyst and monitored with UV-vis adsorption spectrometer. The obtained apparent rate constant for each cycle is showed in Fig. 7. The results show that the rate constants in the two model reactions both preserve 90% of the initial value after recycle 5 times. The isolated products obtained after the magnetic separation were analyzed by ICP. Results show that negligible Au leaching of our catalysts occurs, which demonstrates the high stability of PEI–Au multilayer films on a Fe3O4@SiO2 magnetic support, and the high performance of the magnetic separation. The slight loss of rate constant in 5th cycle is due to some loss of catalyst in the repeated magnetic separation, washing and drying process.
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Fig. 7 Rate constant values (k) of the catalytic reduction reactions of 4-NP and Fe(CN)63− in five different cycles using Fe3O4@SiO2@(PEI–Au)10 catalyst. |
Footnote |
† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available. See DOI: 10.1039/c1cy00096a |
This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2011 |