Innovation in environmental analysis

Abstract

As the EU launches its latest €17 billion research programme, which includes significant funding for environmental research, JEM takes a look at the trends in and dynamics of innovation in environmental analysis.

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The analytical sciences have advanced in leaps and bounds over the past 50 years, and have changed society as a result. In analytical chemistry, for instance, scientists have been driving steadily towards ever lower detection limits. Whereas in the 1950s analysts worked at the gram and microgram levels, they now operate routinely in picograms and femtograms and even, in certain kinds of analysis, in attograms (10⁻¹⁸).¹ Detection of trace metals, to take one example, has improved from parts-per-million to parts-per-trillion and even parts-per-quadrillion. And with the growth of genomics and proteomics, analysts are learning how to measure substances within living organisms at the level of attomoles—a factor of 50,000 beyond what was possible previously. Environmental monitoring is just one of the areas to benefit from these developments; others include genetic screening, forensic investigation and product safety.

As in other areas of science and technology, these advances are the result of a process of technological innovation. Early work on innovation stressed a simple linear model in which scientific discoveries fed through to technological developments, which in turn fed through into economic growth. The innovation environment is now recognised as being much more complicated than this.² In place of linearity, economists now talk in terms of “systems of innovation”, with each country and each industrial or market sector being organised in a slightly different way. It is these differences in organisation and structure, and in particular the effectiveness of knowledge flows between the different actors within the system, that are the main factor linking innovation to competitiveness and economic growth.

The analytical sciences are undoubtedly of major economic importance. In a UK survey, around 75% of companies in the pharmaceuticals, oil & chemicals, biomedical and food & drink industries considered that chemical and biochemical analysis was an essential business function.³ As well as these industrial applications, at the molecular level analytical chemistry is playing an increasing role in areas such as biotechnology and medicine, and in material and earth sciences. Around 20% of all chemists are working as analysts, and an additional 50% are working in fields either involving some element of analysis or relying on analytical results. In the UK alone, the turnover of the analytical services business is estimated at £7 billion (US$11 billion). Hence, innovation in analysis is an important component in the performance of sectors and nations.

But what, exactly, is the “innovation system” for analytical technologies? How is it structured? What are the dynamics and trends? Who is winning? And what will be the context for research and innovation in environmental analysis in the future?

The innovation system

In the analytical sciences innovation takes several forms. Firstly, there are the analytical instruments themselves, where new and improved instrumentation and measuring systems are continually being developed. The instruments are increasingly “smart”, utilising network technologies to communicate results to researchers and to each other. Software is also a strong development focus. The main actors here are the instrument suppliers.

Analytical instruments need to be used according to accepted standards and procedures. Hence a second area for innovation is in methodologies. Research here covers the development of improved measurement and testing methods, as well as sampling strategies and databases and the production of scientific and technical data needed in standards setting. Increasingly, environmental analysis demands multidisciplinary approaches spanning many different disciplines and techniques. Such work is undertaken primarily by universities/research laboratories and standards bodies.

Certified reference materials (CRMs) are an important feature of the analytical process in many types of physical, chemical and biological measurements. They are used as reference samples for identification, as calibrants to provide traceability, and as tools for quality control. Research aims to produce and certify reference materials for specific purposes.

Not all innovation relies on cutting-edge research and development. There is increasing evidence that many analytical measurements are not fit for the purpose for which they are intended and that poor quality data represent a major cost and risk to business and society. Hence, another aspect of analytical innovation is in spreading best practice on the “demand-side”, so as to enable end-users to carry out analytical measurements competently and safely. Increasingly, these performance aspects are a regulatory requirement (see Box 1).

Box 1: Regulatory drivers in analytical innovation

Regulation has always been a key driver in the demand for analytical equipment and services. As regulatory approaches evolve, there is a continual requirement for innovation in analytical instruments, methods and techniques. Surveys show the scope of health, safety and environmental regulation remains a key concern in many industries and the pace of change is accelerating.

A number of factors are at work here.³ For instance, regulatory authorities are no longer prepared to accept scientific uncertainty as an excuse for inaction. Lobby groups are becoming very effective in talking up concerns and public distrust over government science is rising. All of this is fuelling “precautionary science”. Regulators are also aiming to shift liability and make industry more accountable for product safety. For example, the EU's new REACH system will target up to 30,000 chemicals, each of which may need to be analysed for toxicity, environmental fate and behaviour, and physical-chemical characteristics. Supply chains will be expected to deliver such analyses in a defined timeframe (2005–2012) and audit trails will be needed to demonstrate traceability and share information. Similar issues are apparent in the food safety area. In the environmental sphere, legislation is converging on lifecycle impacts, tighter standards and zero release targets.

Such issues are leading to changes in the way environmental regulation is applied. In particular, regulators are seeking to specify not only the analytical methods to be used but also the performance requirements for people and equipment. The introduction of ISO17025 on the competence of testing and calibration laboratories has also led to greater emphasis on validation and performance, uncertainty of measurement, fitness for purpose, and contract review. The net effect has been a tighter control on the analytical methods used, a greater use of standard methods, and increased reliance on instrumentation and automation. In some cases this has meant additional costs for certification and accreditation.

All of this creates new opportunities for laboratories, consultants and instrument manufacturers. These include infrastructure support services, sample preparation, methods and techniques for “new” substances (i.e. emerging environmental pollutants), automation, field techniques and sensors.

Adapted from ref 3.

International performance in analytical sciences

How do the leading research nations compare in the analytical sciences? An innovation audit undertaken by the UK Analytical Partnership, an industry network, provides a detailed picture of international performance.³ Based on data on analytical and chemical publications and patents, the study considered the performance of the analytical sector across a range of countries from three perspectives: quantity, exploitability and techniques.

In terms of analytical publications, the US was found to have the largest share, accounting for 20% of the total, followed by Japan with 10% and Germany with 7.5% (Fig. 1). At 5%, the UK was in the middle rank, together with Spain, Italy and France which had 4–5% each (not shown). The survey also found evidence of a sharp increase in the number of analytical publications from Spain, Italy, France, the Netherlands and Sweden in recent years. Compared to GDP (in other words, the “bang per buck”), the UK was behind Spain and Germany, but ahead of the US and Japan (Fig. 2). The quality of research was more difficult to judge, as the available citation indexes did not prove amenable to this type of assessment.

Fig. 1 Share of analytical publications by country—majors.

Fig. 2 Publications/GDP index—1996–99 ‘bang per buck’.

The audit also examined the conversion of academic research into potential new products by comparing analytical patent publication ratios in the countries concerned (Fig. 3). Japan was the leader in this area, followed closely by Sweden and France. The USA ranked fourth in terms of the economic impact of analytical innovations, followed by Germany and the UK. The UKAP attributed Sweden and France's strong position to the unique patent culture found in these countries.

Fig. 3 Patent/Publication Ratios.

Finally, the study looked at the UK's percentage share of publications against the global growth rate of various analytical techniques. The results indicated that the UK is performing well in new areas such as proteomics, transcriptome and nanospray, but less well in techniques such as miniaturisation and capillary electrophoresis (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 Technique–UK share of publications vs. global growth rate.

Current status and trends

Despite its benefits and importance to industry and society as a whole, analysis is very much the poor relation of the scientific world. According to David Ferguson, of the Royal Society of Chemistry's (RSC) Analytical Division, “Even its strongest champions would have to agree that analytical science suffers from an image problem”.⁴ He continued: “From the academic side it has been viewed as rather ‘oily rag’ and applied—and therefore not really a respectable occupation for a card-carrying academic”.

This perception has led to a vicious and constraining circle: analysis has been given a minor place in academic curricula, and so failed to stimulate students, which in turn has failed to generate the high calibre of analysts needed to undertake cutting-edge teaching and research.^4,5 Lack of investment in state-of-the-art equipment has also acted as a brake on analytical research. As a result, there is an inadequate supply of analysts and, surveys suggest, poor standards from many analytical laboratories. Thus, encouraging promising young researchers to view analytical science as an attractive career choice is a key challenge for the future.

In industry, too, analysis has tended to be marginalised. According to the American Chemical Society's latest survey, analytical service laboratories employ around 3% of industrial chemists in the US.⁶ This is a similar concentration to sectors such as plastics, basic chemicals and medical devices, and is beaten only by pharmaceuticals, speciality chemicals, and coatings. But laboratories have the lowest median salary of the 25 industrial sectors surveyed. They also have one of the lowest share of PhDs. RSC data confirm a similar situation in the UK, with analysts' salaries being around 85% of the median for the profession as a whole.

Research and development have suffered heavily in the economic downturn. In the United States, chemical and pharmaceutical companies spent US$20.8 billion in 2000, around 10% of the country's total industrial R&D spending.⁶ In 2001, the R&D spending of the top 25 chemical companies dropped by an average of 2.9%, although drug companies continued to increase R&D investments. Analytical functions are particularly exposed in such a climate. Many companies look on them as an overhead, rather than as a source of competitive edge, and with their reliance on expensive capital equipment they are prime candidates for “down-sizing” and “out-sourcing”. The contraction of industry tradeshows is another indicator of market difficulties. For instance, attendance at Pittcon 2002, one of the key tradeshows for analytical chemistry instrumentation, was down by 6.6% from the previous year and 32% below the peak attendance in 1996.¹

The nature of the analysis market has also changed over recent years. In the 1980s, instrument suppliers tended to be highly specialised businesses.⁷ Companies competed more on the performance of the instruments than on price, and the sales process was essentially peer-to-peer—one scientist selling a product to another. As the instruments have become more standardised and mainstream, the market has become more competitive, with companies competing much more like mass market producers. In short, the market is now less science-focused and more commercial.

As the stakes increase, companies are constantly looking to differentiate their products and protect their intellectual property. Many of the core analytical technologies have been around for decades and thus are beyond patent protection. Hence much of the innovation activity on the supply side revolves around minor improvements in established technologies. While some companies prefer to pursue their own developments, others may choose to simply license or cross-license technology from one another.

Another factor influencing the market is industry's ability to assimilate innovation, either in the form of new technology or expertise from universities or other sources.⁸ Recent changes, such as restructuring, delayering and globalisation, have had a significant impact on the ability of companies to respond to external innovation stimuli. Hence, while universities are under increasing pressure to “reach out” to industry, delayered companies are not necessarily receptive to the knowledge transfer message.

Best practice in analytical innovation

Against this background, there is a clear need to revitalise the analytical sciences and push them up the agenda, both within the research community and in industry. A variety of initiatives and programmes provide pointers on how to unlock the innovation potential of the analytical community.

One such is the UK Analytical Partnership (UKAP). Launched in July 2000, UKAP is primarily a networking initiative bringing together all of the key players in UK analytical science. The initiative grew out of the UK Government's Foresight exercise which noted that analytical sciences in the UK were “lagging behind” in international terms. Members work in analytical laboratories, process industries, instrument manufacture, education, research councils, national institutes, learned societies and government agencies. Coordination is provided by the LGC, with support from the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), and the RSC through its Analytical Division.

During its first two years the Partnership has been active on several fronts.⁹ A series of audits and studies have been undertaken to benchmark skill sets and innovation performance (see above) and to assess the status of regulatory science in key sectors. In the training area, a series of annual workshops on the teaching of analytical science have been launched; a grant was secured to set up a graduate apprenticeship scheme; and, together with the RSC and various UK universities, an open learning degree in analytical science is being developed for existing practitioners. In October 2002 the Partnership organised its first industry conference focusing on the impact of analysis on the UK's competitiveness. Other activities have included the brokering of funding for three new professorial chairs in analytical research at UK universities; and a study into the use of analytical measurements and skills training in the metal finishing industry.

DTI's Analytical Innovation Programme has also supported a set of technology assessment activities.¹⁰ This has comprised two interacting strands. A series of practical evaluations focused on techniques and instrumentation falling outside the programme's core projects, yet having significant potential to enhance the UK’s analytical resource base. Alongside the practical evaluations, a technology watch activity was maintained, combining traditional literature abstraction with advanced networking and electronic search methods. The outputs consist of a technology awareness monograph together with a series of shorter articles including appraisals and practical evaluations of individual techniques.

A third leg in the UK activity is the Valid Analytical Measurement (VAM) Programme.¹¹ This is a demand-side initiative which aims to provide working laboratories with the tools necessary to implement best practice and demonstrate the reliability and integrity of their results. Laboratories that adopt VAM provide customers and users of data with increased confidence that results are valid and fit for purpose. The Programme covers the full spectrum of measurements, from traditional analytical techniques to newer ones in areas such as multiplexed DNA analysis and the analysis of surfaces at nanometre resolution.

In the United States, environmental analysis activities are spread across a number of federal agencies, including the Department of Energy, National Science Foundation, and Environmental Protection Agency.¹² The Federal Technology Transfer Act of 1986 (FTTA) encourages co-operation between federal agencies and outside parties such as industry, universities, and state and local governments to conduct joint research and to commercialise environmental technologies. EPA's activities under FTTA involve development and implementation of Cooperative Research and Development Agreements (CRADAs) and development and oversight of the implementation of licensing agreements. CRADAs allow participating organisations to access EPA's state-of-the-art laboratory facilities and to collaborate with EPA scientists and engineers. In some cases they also provide opportunities for exclusive licensing of patented technologies.

In addition, EPA is one of ten federal agencies participating in the Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) program, designed to involve small business in innovative R&D.¹³ Several of the activities funded here relate to monitoring and analysis. Current examples include an in-the-field method to detect Cryptosporidium parvum, and a portable analyser to detect bacteria and bacterial pathogens in potable and recreational waters.

With an emphasis on technology assessment rather than technology transfer, EPA also runs an Environmental Technology Verification (ETV) Program.¹⁴ This develops testing protocols and verifies the performance of a wide range of innovative environmental technologies so as to accelerate their entrance into the domestic and international marketplace. The ETV Program is carried out through partnerships with private testing and evaluation organisations. These ETV Partners work with EPA technology experts to create efficient and fully quality-assured testing procedures that verify the performance of innovative technologies. The Program covers a broad range of technology categories across six centers. Analytical technologies are mainly addressed by the ETV Advanced Monitoring Systems Center, which has undertaken assessments for a wide range of analyzers, monitors and sensors for air, water and site characterisation.

The European Union has a long tradition of research in environmental analysis. Activities in this area started as long ago as the 1960s, and as well as environmental research have strong links to health and agriculture. Over recent years activities on standards, measurements and testing (SMT) have been addressed under the EU's Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development, a series of multi-annual programmes spanning many fields of science and technology. Environmental monitoring is one of several priority areas, with activities focusing on the development of new instrumentation, new methodologies, and new reference materials. Current projects include: the setting up of a measurement infrastructure for marine biological monitoring (BEQUALM); the production and certification of CRMs for elements found in wastewater (WASWAT) and for organic contaminants (BROC); and development of tools and techniques for qualitative metrological analysis (MEQUALAN).¹⁵

The Sixth Framework Programme, which has just been launched, represents a substantial departure from what has gone before. Rather than funding pure research projects, the European Commission is targeting the development of critical mass and key competences in strategically important areas of science and technology, as part of what it terms a “European Research Area”. It aims to achieve this through bigger projects and networks, and through encouraging the European research community to better coordinate its research efforts (see Box 2). Measurement and testing activities will continue to play a crucial role under FP6 and will also be important in the context of EU enlargement.¹⁶

Box 2: Towards multidisciplinary environmental analysis

Metropolis is a network of 38 scientific institutions in 17 European countries, developing an interdisciplinary approach to measurements and their reliability in environmental monitoring. Over two years the network will study, analyse and disseminate as widely as possible the best metrology practices, from all aspects of the environment. The aim is to improve comparability and confidence of environmental monitoring, moving towards more effective environmental legislation.

The idea for the network arose out of the European Conference on the Role of Metrology in Environment, Health and Safety, held in June 2001.¹⁷ The conference recognised that while the environment is continuous, scientists examining its problems work mainly within the compartments of air, water, and soil, with too little communication between them. However, the behaviour of pollutants is not compartmentalised; in many cases they move between all these media, and scientific know-how from one area may be of great interest to another. Furthermore, information flows between primary research activities and end-users also need to be better integrated.

The Metropolis network aims to build a resource of environmental metrology and other related expertise that is accessible to environmental scientists and end-users throughout Europe, including the EU institutions themselves. The project comprises six work packages addressing various aspects of environmental measurements. These are: biomonitoring; methods in analytical chemistry and reference materials; online measurements and data transfer; quality assurance and uncertainty assessment; standardisation; and use of measurement results for decision-making.

As well as European Commission funding, the network is supported by four pan-European organisations with complementary interests, namely the European Committee for Standardisation (CEN) , the European Environment Agency (EEA) , the European Network of Environmental Research Organisations (ENERO) and the European Safety, Reliability and Data Association (ESReDA) Members use plenary network meetings, seminars and internet sites to publish guidance on state-of-the-art measurement techniques and methods for the environment, health and safety. They are also working to identify areas where new collaboration or research is needed. A major internet conference at the end of the two years will share best practices identified during the operational period.

The project is likely to form a basis for a future Network of Excellence under the EU's Sixth Framework Programme for RTD which was launched in December.

Metropolis Network: see www.ineris.fr/en/metropolis/metropolis.htm.

An innovation culture

Analysis underpins many areas of our economy and society, and is a major factor in competitiveness and effective environmental protection. Moreover, its importance is growing. The fastest innovating branches of science and technology rely to a significant extent on advanced analytical developments and the expertise of analysts. Similarly, the future evolution of health, safety and environmental legislation depends on progress in developing and applying advanced analytical techniques. Clearly, we can no longer afford to neglect such an important contributor to knowledge and wealth creation.

Governments, industry and the research community are increasingly alert to this message and are beginning to recognise the need for action. One of the key challenges is to break down the barriers that have traditionally existed between scientific disciplines, between industry and academia, and between suppliers and end-users. Experience elsewhere points to the need to create an innovation culture in which each of these different groups can freely interact.

Building such a culture will require action on several fronts:

Research and education

Clearly research still has an important role to play. There is a need for analytical research programmes at the national and international level focused around centres of excellence in particular issues or techniques. Since environmental issues span different media and scientific disciplines, such centres should have a strong multidisciplinary character.

The educational base also needs to be strengthened. Analytical science should become or be kept as an essential part of every faculty of natural sciences. State-of-the-art equipment is needed for teaching and research and the curriculum's analytical content should be extended and consolidated.

Innovation and networks

Innovation is a highly complex process that takes place over extended timescales and is sensitive to a wide range of “environmental” factors. Indeed, economists now talk in terms of “knowledge ecologies” within firms and organisations, likening the innovation process to that of a living organism.¹⁸ This points to a key role for networks in bringing together the various actors (end-users, instrument manufacturers, academia, government) and generally oiling the wheels of the analytical services market. Such networks should aim to improve information flows and knowledge exchange, as well as improving career prospects for young analysts. Potential activities include technology watch (e.g. as in the DTI AI Programme), technology transfer (e.g. CRADAs and SBIR), technology verification and best practice (e.g. ETV, VAM), and various forms of vocational training and professional development (as pursued by UKAP).

Role of government

Governments are major sponsors of research and development in areas such as health, food, safety and the environment. These activities commonly focus on risk assessment and are underpinned by extensive investment and capabilities in analytical science. Hence, the innovation most likely to be drawn from these programmes lies in analytical fields, for example through novel operational approaches, instruments, test kits and sensors.⁸ Having invested in sophisticated (often state-of-the-art) facilities, government laboratories also provide access to key infrastructure. One important factor here is the pressure to keep regulatory science and advice clearly separated from industry. But if carefully constructed, this need not necessarily be a barrier to improving the economic returns from publicly-funded risk assessment activities.

Harnessing technology

As in other areas of science, the analytical sciences are being profoundly influenced by developments in information and communication technologies. We see evidence for this at many levels. Analytical instruments are becoming increasingly smart. Many manufacturers now offer service and support online. And with the arrival of grids—the ability to share computing and other resources across very high bandwidth networks—more and more research will be undertaken by “virtual institutes” which bring together the best researchers and instrumentation from around the world on a case-by-case basis.¹⁹ The analytical community—researchers, instrument manufacturers, commercial laboratories, regulators—must grasp these developments and fully exploit the possibilities they present to reduce costs, improve customer service and increase efficiency.

References

1. The Times, They Are A-Changin, R. Dagani, in Chem. Eng. News, 8th April 2002, 80, (14), 23––25. See http://pubs.acs.org/cen/.
2. For overview of innovation studies see for example The Economics of Industrial Innovation, ed. C. Freeman and L. Soete, 1997, Continuum International Publishing Group–Pinter, ISBN: 1855670712; Technology, Management and Systems of Innovation, K. Pavitt, 1999, Edward Elgar, ISBN: 1858988748; Managing Innovation, 2nd edn., J. Tidd, K. Pavitt and J. Bessant, 2001, John Wiley and Sons Ltd, ISBN: 0471496154.
3. UKAP Innovation Audit, summarised in UKAP Update, Issue 2, Summer 2001. Available at http://www.ukap.org.
4. Image analysis, Nina Morgan, in chembytes e-zine, Royal Society of Chemistry, June 2000. See http://www.chemsoc.org/chembytes/ezine/2000/morgan_jun00.htm.
5. Analysis 2000, Division of Analytical Chemistry of the Swiss Chemical Society, 2000, English summary available at http://www.sach.ch/ana00_e.html.
6. Industry Dominates R&D Spending in US, in Chem. Eng. News, 28th Oct 2002, pp 50–52. See http://pubs.acs.org/cen/.
7. Intellectual Property and the Analytical Industry: Have incidences of patent litigation increased?, in Anal. Chem., 1997, 70, 737A––739A. See http://pubs.acs.org.
8. House of Commons Select Committee on Science and Technology—Sixth Report, Appendix 46: Memorandum submitted by Dr R. D Worswick, Government Chemist and Chief Executive, LGC, HMSO, 2001.
9. UKAP Update, Issue 4, Winter 2002. Available at http://www.ukap.org.
10. Analytical Innovation Programme, LGC Limited for D. T. I. See http://www.anamap.co.uk.
11. Valid Analytical Measurement Programme, LGC Limited. See http://www.vam.org.uk.
12. Summary Report on Federal Laboratory Technology Transfer: Agency Approaches: FY2001, Activity Metrics and Outcomes, US Department of Commerce, September 2002. For EPA activities under the Federal Technology Transfer Act see http://www.epa.gov/osp/ftta.htm.
13. Small Business Innovation Research Program, Office of Research and Development, Environmental Protection Agency. See http://www.epa.gov/ord/.
14. Environmental Technology Verification Program, Environmental Protection Agency. See http://www.epa.gov/etv/.
15. For links to EU projects see Metrology: measurements and testing tools for the future Europe, article at http://europa.eu.int/comm/research/growth/gcc/ga03-projects.html.
16. For latest information on the EU's Sixth Framework Programme see http://www.cordis.lu.
17. Metrology in the spotlight at the INERIS conference, article at http://europa.eu.int/comm/research/growth/gcc/ga03-projects.html.
18. For knowledge ecology see for example Collaborative of Community Intelligence Labs, Santa Cruz, http://www.knowledgeecology.com and Brint Institute, http://www.brint.com/papers/ecology.htm.
19. Virtual institutes and the research infrastructure of the future, article at http://europa.eu.int/comm/research/growth/gcc/ga03-projects.html.

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