What emerging contaminants are in the urine of college students and what are their associated risks? analysis method development and applications

Abstract

Emerging contaminants (ECs) are widespread in the environment and pose notable health risks, yet their exposure levels among specific groups, such as college students, are underexplored. This study investigated the occurrence of ECs in human urine through suspect screening (537 ECs) and target analysis (50 prioritized ECs), alongside a human health risk assessment. An optimized solid-phase extraction method was compared with liquid–liquid extraction and supported-liquid extraction and was coupled with LC-TQMS analysis. This method demonstrated high reliability (r = 0.997), precision (0.05–14.7%), recoveries (52.6–113%) and sensitivity (LOD: 0.05–5.00 ng mL⁻¹). Urine samples were collected twice from 43 freshmen and once from 33 seniors (students from other grades), with accompanying questionnaires assessing their living environments and lifestyle habits. Eleven ECs were detected, with atrazine exhibiting a 100% detection frequency. Significant variations were observed in the urinary concentrations of 2,4-dinitrophenol, ethylparaben, metformin, and mycophenolic acid between freshmen and seniors, suggesting differences in exposure patterns influenced by living environments and personal habits. Statistical analyses identified correlations between EC exposure and personal care product use, with monobenzyl phthalate being a notable example. Health risk assessments indicated low overall risks but revealed higher hazard quotient (HQ) values for atrazine, 2,4-dinitrophenol, and mycophenolic acid, warranting further investigation. This study successfully developed a high-throughput and sensitive LC/MS method by integrating suspect screening with target analysis. It also provided a preliminary evaluation of EC exposure in a young student population through urine analysis, offering valuable insights for future research on environmental exposure and associated health risks.