Environmental fate behavior and risk implications of legacy and emerging PFAS across multiple media: a spatiotemporal perspective from Africa and beyond

Abstract

PFAS are a class of emerging contaminants widely used in industrial processes and consumer products, often referred to as “forever chemicals” due to their persistence in the environment. Their long-term bioaccumulation, particularly for long-chain PFAAs, is driven by their low water solubility, strong chemical stability, and resistance to degradation. In contrast, shorter-chain PFAAs, such as PFBA, PFHxA, and PFBS, tend to be more mobile and less bioaccumulative, although they still pose environmental concerns. In Nigeria and many other African countries, research on PFAS remains limited, resulting in critical gaps in baseline data, exposure pathways, and risk assessment. These gaps hinder effective scientific evaluation and policy development. This article reviews the distribution, fate, and behaviour of PFAS across environmental media, examining their persistence, mobility, transformation, and degradation processes. It also highlights ecological and human health risks associated with PFAS exposure through water, soil, and food-chain transfer, and summarizes current global trends in their occurrence. Given recent international findings, there is an urgent need for localized monitoring programs and enhanced analytical capacity to better understand PFAS behaviour under tropical environmental conditions. Addressing these knowledge gaps is essential for advancing environmental health equity and guiding evidence-based national regulation.