Advances in Printable Flexible and Stretchable Thin-Film Electrodes: Materials, Interfaces, Technologies and Bioelectronic Applications

Abstract

The mechanical mismatch between rigid clinical electrodes and soft biological tissues remains a primary bottleneck restricting the stability of long-term electrophysiological monitoring. Printable flexible thin-film electrodes offer a compelling solution by enabling additive, high-throughput patterning on flexible and stretchable substrates, thereby circumventing the reliance on vacuum environments and high-temperature processing typical of conventional microfabrication. This review synthesizes recent advances in functional inks, ranging from metals and carbon nanomaterials to conductive polymers and ionogels, together with high-resolution printing techniques. Addressing the critical challenge of interfacial failure in flexible devices, we explore engineering strategies to enhance adhesion at both electrode-substrate and electrode-tissue interfaces. Specifically, we analyze the pivotal roles of physical interlocking and chemical anchoring mechanisms in suppressing dynamic delamination and maintaining device integrity. Finally, the review highlights representative applications in wearable electronics, implantable systems, and emerging organoid interfaces, and outlines key translational challenges, including long-term stability and manufacturing reproducibility.