Towards a high MnO2 loading and gravimetric capacity from proton-coupled Mn4+/Mn2+ reactions using a 3D free-standing conducting scaffold

Abstract

We highlight 3D free-standing electrospun CNF electrodes as superior conductive scaffolds for the highly reversible proton-coupled Mn^IV_(s) ↔ Mn^II_(aq) conversion in a mild aqueous buffered electrolyte (pH 5). An electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance is used to in situ monitor these conversion reactions on the non-transparent CNF electrodes. Free-standing CNFs allow for a remarkably high relative MnO₂ loading (63%, equivalent to an m_MnO2/m_CNF ratio of 1.7) at a maximal charge of 1.4 mA h cm⁻², while keeping the C.E. ≥ 95% over 300 cycles. The gravimetric capacity of the complete cathode is thus as high as 338 mA h g_MnO2+CNF⁻¹ (i.e., 534 mA h g_MnO2⁻¹), outperforming the current state-of-the-art cathodes based on conventional graphite/carbon felts as substrates (<30% MnO₂ loading, <0.4 m_MnO2/m_CNF ratio and <150 mA h g_{MnO2+substrate}⁻¹) or composite electrodes. Furthermore, the buffered electrolyte allows for remarkably highly constant deposition–dissolution potentials with a low hysteresis (0.16 V). Pairing 3D electrospun CNFs (diameter ≤ 200 nm) and mild aqueous buffered electrolytes is thus a striking approach towards the development of MnO₂-based mild aqueous batteries with high energy efficiency.