Additive manufacturing of electrically conductive polymers: a comprehensive review

Abstract

The ever-increasing progress in additive manufacturing technologies, reflected in developing advanced materials by using 3D and 4D printing, has shown immense potential for designing, prototyping, and manufacturing electrically conductive polymers (ECPs) for numerous applications. This review comprehensively summarizes the latest achievements in the development of advanced ECP materials used in 3D and 4D printing technologies, along with their electrical conduction mechanisms. We provide an overview of primary printing methods, i.e., fused filament fabrication (FFF) and stereolithography (SLA), adapted for ECPs and examine the printability and performance of the resulting products. We also highlight the latest advances in ECPs obtained through 4D printing techniques, which are time-responsive and adaptive structures applicable in diverse fields, including biomedicine, water treatment, electronics, energy storage devices, and sensing materials and devices. The combination of printability and electrical conductivity of ECPs enables other technological innovations like flexible electronics and translational medicine. However, future developments will rely on optimizing materials and manufacturing variables, which limit the scalability of prototype ECPs for industrial-scale use. In addition to printability, durability, and environmental stability, structures also pose limitations to future research on additive manufacturing of ECPs. Integrating functionalities such as electronic components, sensing platforms, and biomedical devices into existing printing technologies presents a significant challenge for future research.