Fiber electronics for wearable interactive systems

Abstract

The rapid development of smart materials, flexible electronics, and advanced textile technologies has accelerated the emergence of fiber-based electronic systems. The seamless integration of fiber electronics into textile substrates has given rise to interactive textiles capable of realizing closed-loop “sensing-processing-feedback” functionalities. To achieve such integrated functionalities, interactive textiles typically comprise three essential components: a sensing device for data acquisition, signal processing modules for real-time analysis, and output units for multimodal feedback delivery. This minireview provides a brief overview of the fundamental fiber-shaped electronic devices utilized in interactive textile systems, with an emphasis on fabrication methodologies, functional design strategies, and system-level integration approaches. Representative applications in areas such as interactive displays, virtual and augmented reality, and personalized healthcare are discussed. Finally, key challenges and future directions are outlined to facilitate the realization of intelligent and fully integrated interactive textile systems.

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Shaowu Pan

Shaowu Pan is currently a professor at the State Key Laboratory of Advanced Fiber Materials and the School of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University, China. He received his PhD in Materials Science and Engineering from Tongji University, with joint research experience at Fudan University. He then worked as a Postdoctoral Fellow at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, before joining Donghua University. His research interests include smart materials, flexible sensors, and fiber electronics.

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1. Introduction

Fibers have advanced alongside the growth of civilization and textile technology to meet the increasing demands of both academia and industry.^1–3 From natural fibers such as cotton, linen, and silk to synthetic fibers such as nylon and polyester and from single filaments to high-strength yarns, fibers are processed into textiles using various manufacturing techniques.^4–6 Beyond their traditional functions in thermal insulation, heat dissipation, and moisture management, fiber-based textiles are increasingly being engineered to incorporate advanced functionalities.^7–15 Their unique properties, such as light weight, miniaturization, and super flexibility, offer significant design flexibility for advanced device architectures and provide advantages that are challenging to achieve with conventional planar electronics.^16–19 Over the past two decades, fibers have been integrated with smart functions, making them a promising platform for next-generation wearable electronics. Various fiber-shaped electronic devices have been developed and applied to smart textiles, including sensors, energy conversion and storage devices, and displays.^20–26

Integrating functional fibers into textiles enables customizable patterns, breathability, seamless construction, and greater comfort, creating new opportunities for wearable electronics.^27,28 Smart textiles have progressed through three stages of development: passive, active, and intelligent.²⁹ Passive smart textiles function primarily as sensors, detecting environmental or physiological signals without responding.³⁰ Active smart textiles integrate sensing and actuation, allowing them to respond dynamically to external stimuli.³¹ At the most advanced stage, intelligent textiles support real-time data acquisition and enable bidirectional interaction between the user and the textile.³² By combining sensing, responsiveness, and adaptability, they can adjust to changing environmental conditions. Future development will focus on integrating these capabilities into self-contained microsystems that include sensing, actuation, computation, energy harvesting and storage, wireless communication, and visual display. These next-generation systems are expected to conform to the body, enabling continuous and natural interaction while maintaining flexibility and autonomous operation.

Smart textiles have gained significant attention due to their user-centric interactive design, aligning with the future direction of personalized and adaptive wearable technologies.³³ Future research will focus on developing human-centered applications to enhance user experience and functional performance. For seamless integration into the Internet of Things (IoT), next-generation textile systems should incorporate key functional subsystems.^34,35 Conductive textiles, combined with soft and printed electronics, offer a scalable approach for integrating electronic functions directly into fabric structures.³⁶ To achieve higher levels of intelligence and interactivity, smart textiles must support context-aware reasoning, allowing autonomous selection of appropriate data-processing algorithms based on real-time environmental, physiological, and behavioral inputs.

This minireview article provides an overview of electronic fibers for wearable interactive applications (Fig. 1). The discussion begins with fabrication strategies for fiber-based electronic devices, emphasizing their intelligent functions in sensing, actuation, computing, and display. Key components and integration approaches in multifunctional interactive textiles are then analyzed. Representative applications in interactive display, virtual and augmented reality, and personalized healthcare are summarized, followed by an outline of current challenges in the development of electronic fibers and textiles.

Fig. 1 Overview of wearable interactive systems enabled by fiber electronic devices.

2. Design of fiber electronics for interactive systems

In fiber electronics-based interactive systems, electronic fibers are designed to perform key functions, such as sensing, data processing, and information display. Fibers in interactive systems must meet basic requirements in terms of mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, and operational stability. In addition, different application scenarios may place further demands on their functions and structural design. This section first outlines the typical fabrication strategies for smart fibers. It then summarizes the core functional components used in interactive systems, including fiber-shaped sensors, transistors, actuators and displays, with emphasis on their device architecture, operating principles and functional roles.

2.1. Fabrication strategy

2.1.1. Melt spinning. Melt spinning is a processing technique in which polymer materials are heated to a molten state in a screw extruder and then extruded through a spinneret (Fig. 2a).³⁷ Most polymers used in melt spinning are semi-crystalline, and their solidification involves a crystallization process that plays a crucial role in determining the final properties of the fibers. To achieve functionalization in melt spinning, the approaches can be mainly categorized into two aspects: material composition and structural design. From the material composition perspective, a common approach is to incorporate functional fillers into the polymer matrix. Traditional melt spinning typically uses thermoplastic polymers, such as polypropylene, polylactic acid, polyamides, polyurethane, and polyesters, as base materials, without the addition of functional fillers.³⁸ However, functional fillers have been selectively introduced to create multi-component systems, particularly for fabricating conductive polymer fibers.³⁹ Conductive fillers, such as carbon black (CB) and carbon nanotube (CNT), are commonly embedded into polymer matrices to enhance electrical conductivity. The concentration of these fillers must be carefully controlled to establish effective conductive pathways. For instance, polycarbonate/CNT composite fibers typically contain filler concentrations ranging from 1 wt% to 4 wt%, achieving suitable conductivity and spinnability.⁴⁰ However, excessive filler content can reduce melt spinnability due to increased viscosity and potential phase separation within the composite system. To balance electrical performance and processability, the electrical conductivity of conventional conductive fibers typically rarely exceeds 1 S cm⁻¹.⁴¹ Synergistic effects between different carbon-based fillers have been explored to enhance conductivity. For example, hybrid polyethylene terephthalate yarns incorporating both graphene and CNT exhibit significantly improved electrical performance compared to those with a single filler.⁴²

Fig. 2 Fabrication methods of fiber-shaped electronic devices. (a) Melt spinning. (b) Wet spinning. (c) 3D printing. (d) Thermal drawing. (e) Surface functionalization: (i) direct deposition of active materials and (ii) electrospinning of composite fibrous membranes.

In terms of structural design, the customizable shapes of the spinneret allow the fabrication of fibers with various cross-sectional geometries, such as triangular, circular, elliptical, and hollow. These distinct shapes expand the potential applications of functional fibers. For example, hollow fibers are well-suited for encapsulating liquid substances. The integration of highly conductive liquid metal within elastomeric poly[styrene-b-(ethylene-co-butylene)-b-styrene] (SEBS) hollow fibers has demonstrated exceptional performance, with an ultralow resistivity of 3 × 10⁻⁵ Ω cm and remarkable elasticity, ranging from 800% to 1000%.⁴³

2.1.2. Wet spinning. Wet spinning is a relatively mild processing method in which polymer dopes are extruded through spinneret orifices into a coagulation bath, where solvent exchange occurs to form fibers (Fig. 2b).⁴⁴ During this process, interactions between the polymer solution and the coagulation bath facilitate the incorporation of functional components, such as cross-linking agents, into the fiber structure, thereby enhancing material functionality.⁴⁵ Because the wet spinning is conducted at ambient temperature, it is particularly well-suited for fabricating temperature-sensitive biomaterials, such as silk fibroin (SF), chitosan, and collagen.⁴⁶

Wet spinning can produce fibers with porous morphology and skin-core structures under appropriate processing conditions. The porous structure of wet-spun fibers is crucial for practical applications, such as stretching, sensing, and insulation.^47–49 On the one hand, porous fibers show higher extensibility in the axial direction compared to solid fibers. For example, wet spinning has been used to prepare conductive liquid metal/polyurethane fibers, where the internal porous structure of the elastic fibers enhances their stretchability, achieving elongation up to 500%.⁵⁰ On the other hand, porous fibers exhibit greater compressibility in the radial direction compared to non-porous fibers. The compressible and recoverable nature of the porous structure has been utilized to monitor dynamic pressure changes.⁵¹ Furthermore, the pores formed during solvent exchange can be further reinforced through carbon dioxide foaming. The preparation of hollow thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU)/polyacrylonitrile (PAN) fibers by combining wet spinning and polymer solution foaming results in fibers with thermal insulation properties.⁵² Since wet spinning involves solvent exchange, several issues may arise, including incomplete solvent removal, inadequate drying, and wastewater contamination, all of which can compromise fiber properties and raise environmental concerns.

2.1.3. 3D printing. 3D printing, a key technique of additive manufacturing, enables the fabrication of physical structures through the sequential layer-by-layer deposition of materials guided by digital 3D models (Fig. 2c).⁵³ This technology is transforming traditional industrial production into intelligent and miniaturized systems, allowing precise control over structural architecture and spatial arrangement. The materials compatible with 3D printing primarily include “soft” matter, such as colloidal suspensions, liquid crystal polymers, elastomers, and biocompatible substances.⁵⁴ 3D printing commonly uses two types of feedstock materials: solid filaments and low-viscosity inks.^55,56 In filament-based printing, thermoplastic polymers are typically used as feedstock. These materials are heated to a molten state and extruded through a nozzle onto a platform for precise layer-by-layer deposition. In contrast, direct ink writing utilizes low-viscosity inks loaded with functional materials to enable accurate deposition onto a variety of substrates. Compared to traditional spinning methods, 3D printing operates with a stationary platform and a digitally controlled movable nozzle, enabling higher structural precision. Coaxial nozzle extrusion has been used to fabricate core-sheath fibers, where CNT serve as the conductive core and SF as the dielectric sheath.⁵⁷ This technique allows materials to be deposited on flat surfaces and further assembled into three-dimensional textile architectures, offering a flexible and programmable strategy for fabricating functional fiber structures.

2.1.4. Thermal drawing. Thermal drawing is a versatile fabrication technique that enables the production of kilometers-long functional fibers by designing fiber preforms and heating them in drawing towers (Fig. 2d).⁵⁸ It has been widely employed for the development of advanced fiber electronic devices, particularly in integrating multiple materials and embedding microelectronic components within continuous fiber structures.⁵⁹ The preform, serving as the precursor to the fiber, can be engineered from a wide range of materials, including brittle glasses, elastomeric polymers, metals, insulators, semiconductors, and functional electronic elements.^60–62 To enable successful thermal drawing, the preform must be engineered with careful consideration of material-specific thermal behaviors, including viscosity, expansion coefficients, and interfacial compatibility, all of which critically influence flow behavior and structural preservation during the drawing process. Thermal drawing enables the precise spatial arrangement of functional components across multiple length scales. For example, tiny electronic components can be interconnected by conductive metal wires formed within the fiber during drawing.⁶³ Therefore, thermally drawn fibers can serve as micro-platforms for integrating diverse electronic units, offering a promising route toward flexible, wearable devices and highly integrated intelligent textile systems.

2.1.5. Surface functionalization. Surface functionalization refers to the post-fabrication application of functional materials onto fiber surfaces. This process employs various techniques, such as dip coating, spray coating, in situ growth, and electrospinning, to form functional layers on the fiber surface (Fig. 2e). Dip coating involves immersing fibers in functional solutions to achieve uniform coatings, where strong adhesion is essential to maintain coating integrity. For example, ionic capacitive fibers have been fabricated by tuning the surface tension and rheological properties of electrode materials and ion-conductive inks.⁶⁴ Spray coating utilizes high-pressure atomization to uniformly deposit low-viscosity functional solutions, such as silver nanowires (AgNWs) or CNT dispersions, onto fiber substrates. Volatile solvents, typically ethanol, are used to promote rapid drying and film formation. A representative approach involves sequentially spraying multi-walled CNT and AgNW dispersions onto polyurethane fibers, followed by encapsulation with a SEBS outer layer to complete the conductive architecture. This multilayer structure retains electrical conductivity under mechanical deformation and remains functional in underwater environments.⁶⁵In situ growth is a technique that forms functional materials directly on the substrate surface via chemical reactions, enabling strong interfacial bonding while preserving the intrinsic mechanical properties of the fiber. For example, in situ polymerization of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) on polyester fibers results in a uniform conductive coating without compromising the substrate's inherent softness.⁶⁶ Electrospinning coating utilizes electrospinning technology to deposit nanofibers onto fiber or yarn substrates, forming a continuous nanofiber film.⁶⁷ By incorporating functional materials into the electrospinning solution, functional layers can be directly fabricated on the substrate surface. Additionally, the rough surface morphology of electrospun films can serve as an intermediary layer to enhance the adhesion and uniformity of subsequent functional coatings.⁶⁸ Surface functionalization is widely used due to its simplicity, low cost, and scalability. However, achieving uniform coatings on the curved surfaces of one-dimensional fibers remains a significant challenge. Furthermore, since functionalization is usually performed on the fiber surface, especially through chemical treatments, it can alter the original chemical composition of the fiber. This often leads to changes in surface morphology, reduced mechanical strength, and variations in hydrophilicity. Therefore, it is essential to evaluate its long-term stability and durability under mechanical and environmental stresses to ensure consistent performance.

2.2. Functional components

2.2.1. Sensors. Human activities inevitably leave detectable traces, and the detection of such information relies on advanced sensing technologies. These include pressure detection, non-contact sensing, voice commands, and gesture recognition. To meet the demands of complex environments, sensors should offer multifunctional capabilities, enabling the simultaneous monitoring of pressure, strain, temperature, humidity, and other key physiological signals. Compared to conventional sensors, fiber-based sensors offer better adaptability to complex physiological environments due to their slender and flexible form. Moreover, they support higher-density integration of sensing points while maintaining high sensitivity and measurement accuracy.
Pressure sensor. Pressure sensors convert external pressure stimuli into electrical signals. In fiber-shaped pressure sensors, the sensing unit typically consists of two functional fibers arranged in an interleaved or crossbar structure.⁶⁹ When pressure is applied to the sensing unit, the resulting change in the electrical signal enables quantitative pressure analysis. The primary sensing mechanisms of pressure sensors include capacitive, piezoresistive, and triboelectric effects.⁷⁰ In capacitive pressure sensors, the device structure usually comprises two electrodes separated by a dielectric layer. These components are often fabricated as coaxial fibers, such as conductive fibers coated with a poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) dielectric layer, and then assembled in an overlapping configuration to form a fiber-based capacitor. The capacitance changes as a function of the applied pressure, thereby enabling pressure sensing capabilities (Fig. 3a and b). The crossbar architecture of textile-based sensors allows for the pixelation of pressure distribution across a 2D plane.⁷¹ In resistive pressure sensors, when pressure is applied, the electrodes make direct contact, increasing the number of conductive pathways and leading to a measurable decrease in resistance. The microstructure of the contact interface significantly affects sensor performance; porous or fluffy configurations can enhance sensitivity and broaden the detection range. For instance, electrospun coaxial yarns initially exhibit high resistance due to inter-filament voids. Upon the application of pressure, these voids compress, leading to an increase in conductivity (Fig. 3c). As a result, the yarns demonstrate a high sensitivity of 16.52 N⁻¹ and broad sensing range from 0.003 N to 5 N.⁷² Triboelectric pressure sensors operate based on the triboelectric effect, which is induced by the contact and separation of materials with differing electron affinities. In textile systems, triboelectric sensors can be configured in two primary ways: (1) by integrating dissimilar electrode materials as warp and weft fibers, or (2) by utilizing the textile substrate itself as one of the electrodes. For example, woven structures, consisting of polyimide (PI) and copper-coated fibers arranged orthogonally, can serve as effective triboelectric pairs. This architecture enhances contact frequency and enables efficient energy harvesting from subtle human movements.⁷³ Furthermore, incorporating the human body as an electrode simplifies sensor fabrication and integration.⁷⁴ Single-fiber textiles made of PI-wrapped conductive yarns have also demonstrated the capability to detect body-interactive signals, highlighting their potential for wearable sensing applications.⁷⁵

Fig. 3 (a) Schematic of a capacitive-type pressure sensor built from fiber electrodes. (b) Capacitive response of a pressure sensor under different applied loads. Reproduced with permission from ref. 71. Copyright 2015, Wiley-VCH. (c) Schematic of the sensing mechanisms of the resistive pressure sensor. Reproduced with permission from ref. 72. Copyright 2020, Elsevier Inc. (d) Schematic of the structure and sensing mechanisms of a stretchable fiber strain sensor. (e) Resistance changes of the fiber strain sensor with different repeated strains. Reproduced with permission from ref. 80. Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society. (f) Schematic of the sensing mechanism of a fiber humidity sensor based on the transportation of water molecules on the fiber surface. (g) Capacitance changes of the humidity sensor under different RH levels. Reproduced with permission from ref. 88. Copyright 2019, Wiley-VCH.

Strain sensor. Stretchable strain sensors convert mechanical deformations into measurable electrical signals, typically through changes in resistance or capacitance, depending on the sensing mechanism.^76,77 Due to their small size and flexibility, fiber-shaped strain sensors are particularly well-suited for integration into wearable electronic systems. The key performance parameters for these sensors include sensitivity and stretchability. From a materials standpoint, stretchable strain sensors are generally composed of conductive elements and elastic polymer matrices. Commonly used polymers include TPU and PDMS, while conductive components are typically derived from carbon-based materials, metal nanomaterials, or conductive polymers. High-performance sensors are realized through both precise material selection and microstructural engineering. For example, porous internal structures can be introduced via wet spinning, as demonstrated in wet-spun CB/TPU composite fibers that show strain limits exceeding 200%.⁷⁸ In resistive-type strain sensors, surface microcrack morphology plays a critical role in sensitivity.⁷⁹ Upon deformation, microcracks propagate through the conductive layer, disrupting conductive pathways and leading to significant increases in resistance. For example, in situ formation of silver nanoparticles on fiber surfaces induces crack generation upon stretching, thereby enhancing sensitivity through amplified resistance variation. Meanwhile, the rate of change in resistance exhibits a positive correlation with the applied tensile strain rate (Fig. 3d and e).⁸⁰ Despite these advantages, integrating stretchable fibers into textiles remains challenging. Mechanical stress during textile fabrication often results in irreversible deformation or delamination of the conductive layer, causing resistance instability and reduced sensor reliability.
Temperature sensor. Textiles in direct contact with the human body provide an ideal platform for monitoring temperature. While conventional textiles aim to maintain thermal comfort, smart textiles are engineered to actively regulate temperature through localized heating or cooling for advanced thermal management.⁸¹ Temperature-sensing fibers integrated into textiles should retain sensing performance under mechanical deformation such as stretching. Although metal wires offer high sensitivity and accuracy in temperature detection, their intrinsic rigidity limits compatibility with stretchable textile structures.⁸² To overcome this limitation, metal wires can be patterned into serpentine geometries, enabling mechanical compliance with deformable substrates. Such textile-based temperature sensors exhibit high sensitivity of 0.0039 °C⁻¹, high accuracy (±0.2 °C), fine resolution of 0.05 °C, and fast response times.⁸³ Beyond metal wires, other elastic fibers can also serve as temperature sensors by incorporating thermoresponsive materials. For instance, fibers coated with carbon-based materials or conductive polymers, such as polypyrrole, respond to ambient temperature changes. Polypyrrole-coated fibers fabricated on surface-modified polyester substrates demonstrate electrical responses to both temperature variation and infrared radiation. Moreover, wrapping these fibers around elastic polyurethane cores helps stabilize temperature sensing performance even under strains up to 100%.⁸⁴
Humidity sensor. Localized humidity variations around the human body, particularly near the hands, mouth, and nose, often exceed ambient levels due to transient perspiration and respiratory activities. These variations provide ideal targets for textile-based humidity sensors. In high-humidity environments, sensors absorb water molecules from the air, forming a thin water film on their surface that alters their resistance or capacitance.^85,86 Two primary strategies are employed to enhance water molecule adsorption: utilizing hydrophilic materials and designing rough, porous structures. Hydrophilic sensing materials include carbon-based, polymer-based, and oxide-based substances, as well as their composites. Among them, humidity-sensitive polymers are particularly effective due to their abundant hydrophilic functional groups, such as hydroxyl, carbonyl, and amino groups.⁸⁷ In addition, fiber structures are engineered with surface grooves and internal pores to maximize their specific surface area, thereby increasing the likelihood of interaction with water molecules. An advanced approach integrates both strategies via coaxial electrospinning, where hydrophilic polyimide sheaths are wrapped around the fiber cores with irregular surfaces. This dual-strategy integration enables stable humidity sensing under both low and high humidity conditions, with a fast response time of 3.5 s and recovery time of 4 s (Fig. 3f and g).⁸⁸ Importantly, the properties of the textile substrate play a critical role in determining the stability and accuracy of humidity sensing. In particular, hygroscopic textile materials exhibit moisture-buffering effects, which slow the humidity change rate at the sensor interface and hinder accurate detection of dynamic humidity variations.

2.2.2. Controller. In interactive systems, real-time data processing and signal output are crucial. To meet these demands, the integration of logic functions into textiles has become a key focus in the development of next-generation electronic textiles.⁸⁹ Early approaches involved embedding traditional electronic components, such as complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor chips, into textiles.⁹⁰ More recently, fiber-shaped transistors have emerged as fundamental building blocks for signal processing and computation in textile-based electronic circuits.⁹¹ These transistor devices enable basic logic operations by switching between on and off states, with gate voltage modulation used to control the current flowing through the channel between the source and drain electrodes.⁹² Conventional transistor fabrication often utilizes flexible polymer substrates, where functional layers, such as metallic electrodes, semiconductor channels, and dielectric insulators, are sequentially deposited using techniques such as magnetron sputtering, thermal evaporation, and spin coating.

Fiber-based transistors can be broadly classified into two categories: field-effect transistor (FET) and organic electrochemical transistor (OECT). FETs are typically constructed using a metallic fiber as the gate electrode, which is coated with a dielectric insulating layer. A semiconducting layer is then deposited, followed by the formation of source and drain electrodes, yielding a three-terminal device. The metallic fiber, electrically isolated from the semiconductor by the dielectric layer, can be woven into logic textiles alongside the fiber-based source and drain electrodes to form simple switching circuits (Fig. 4a).⁹³ In contrast, OECTs are generally fabricated by placing a liquid or gel electrolyte between two conductive fibers arranged in parallel or cross configurations. In this architecture, the fibers serve as the source and drain electrodes, while the electrolyte acts as both the ionic conduction pathway and the gate-electrolyte interface. For example, in a glucose sensor for artificial urine detection, OECT fibers were fabricated by coating nylon fibers with a PEDOT:PSS semiconductor layer. Upon analyte interaction with the gate or channel, the potential difference between the electrochemical double layers at the channel/electrolyte and gate/electrolyte interfaces is modulated, effectively altering the gate voltage and producing a measurable current response (Fig. 4b).⁹⁴ Transistor-based devices have enabled the development of computing systems, such as memristors, artificial synaptic neuromorphic computing elements, and logic circuits. In memristive logic-in-memory circuits, the memristor device can function both as logic gates and non-volatile memory elements within a crossbar array. When integrated into textiles via memristive fibers, the overlapping junctions form logic-memory arrays capable of executing complex tasks, similar to those of conventional logic circuits.⁹⁵

Fig. 4 (a) Photograph of a fiber-based OFET embedded in the textile and a schematic of its structure. Reproduced with permission from ref. 93. Copyright 2016, Wiley-VCH. (b) Design of a flexible fiber-based OECT and current response curves under different glucose concentrations. Reproduced with permission from ref. 94. Copyright 2018, Wiley-VCH. (c) Schematic and optical images of an LC fiber-based knitted actuator under thermal stimulation. Reproduced with permission from ref. 99. Copyright 2023, Wiley-VCH. (d) Schematic of the actuation mechanism of a crimped CNT/TPU composite yarn actuator. Reproduced with permission from ref. 100. Copyright 2018, The Royal Society of Chemistry. (e) Illustration of LEDs fabricated by the fiber drawing process and a photograph of the light-emitting fiber. Reproduced with permission from ref. 63. Copyright 2018, Springer Nature. (f) Schematic of a light-emitting pixel formed at the contact point between a luminescent fiber and a transparent conductive fiber, and a photograph of the light-emitting textile under different mechanical deformations. Reproduced with permission from ref. 105. Copyright 2024, The American Association for the Advancement of Science.

2.2.3. Actuator. Actuators convert energy into controlled motion to manipulate objects or provide haptic feedback.⁹⁶ The spinning technology has facilitated the integration of soft materials, such as hydrogels, liquid crystals (LCs), shape-memory alloys (SMAs), shape-memory polymers (SMPs), and biopolymers, into fiber-based actuator systems.⁹⁷ Compared to planar actuators, fiber-based devices offer advantages, such as enhanced flexibility, higher aspect ratios, richer directionality, and seamless integration into textiles.⁹⁸ The performance of these actuators is primarily determined by both the intrinsic material properties and the architectural design of the fibers. A prevalent mechanism involves molecular chain reorientation, in which stimuli-responsive polymers, such as LC-based materials, undergo controlled molecular realignment in response to thermal, optical, or electrical stimuli, resulting in programmable shape changes. For example, LC fibers embedded within textiles can autonomously twist and induce large-scale deformations upon heating, driven by thermally triggered molecular contraction (Fig. 4c).⁹⁹ Another actuation strategy is based on volumetric changes, often driven by ion or molecule exchange with the environment, or by temperature-induced phase transitions, as seen in SMP-based materials. Structural design is also critical; for example, twisted yarns composed of anisotropic fibers can convert helical deformation into linear motion upon stimulation. A notable example is spiral-structured electrothermal fibers, which can generate contraction stresses exceeding 33 kPa (Fig. 4d).¹⁰⁰

The stimuli-responsive actuation mechanisms in fiber and textile-based actuators enable dynamic shape-memory recovery for emerging applications, including textile-based soft grippers, artificial muscles, and smart clothing for thermal management. In textile-based soft grippers, effective object manipulation is achieved through sufficient lifting force and a large contact surface area. For example, a chain-structured textile actuator composed of fiber loops made from shape memory alloys exhibits temperature-dependent deformation. When an electric current is applied, the temperature rises, inducing a phase change in the SMAs that generates the required lifting force. Moreover, different fiber loop arrangements allow for multi-dimensional deformation.¹⁰¹ Autonomous thermal management textiles can efficiently promote sweat evaporation and heat dissipation. A representative design employs carbon nanotube-coated cellulose triacetate fibers, with their morphology regulated via electromagnetic coupling. These fibers modulate the infrared emissivity of the textile in response to variations in skin relative humidity, collapsing under high humidity conditions to enhance heat dissipation.¹⁰²

2.2.4. Display. Displays play a crucial role in human-computer interaction by providing efficient visual feedback through stimuli, such as brightness, graphics, and color.^103,104 Various light-emitting technologies have been developed for display applications, including alternating current electroluminescent devices (ACELs), inorganic and organic light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and light-emitting electrochemical cells (LECs).^63,105,106 Traditional displays are rigid and planar configurations. The electroluminescent mechanisms in these devices operate via two primary pathways: intrinsic and injection types.¹⁰⁷ The intrinsic type involves the generation of positive holes and electrons within the material when subjected to an alternating electric field. When the field is reversed, recombination of these charge carriers occurs, resulting in light emission. In contrast, the injection mechanism occurs at the interface between the n-type and p-type semiconductors, where a p–n junction is formed. Electrons and holes diffuse across the junction, reaching equilibrium to form a stable space charge region. To induce light emission, additional voltage is applied, causing the migration of electrons and holes within the p and n regions. Upon the application of a forward bias, charge carriers are injected into the junction, where their recombination produces excitonic luminescence. For instance, LEDs consist of semiconductor p–n junctions that generate excitonic luminescence when a sufficient voltage is applied to create a positive bias.

To transition from traditional displays into fiber-based systems, researchers should design fiber architectures that integrate double electrodes, a dielectric layer, and a luminescent layer. The integration of photonic components into fibers has been achieved through two primary fabrication strategies: embedding miniature optical components and applying flexible light-emitting films. One approach involves embedding micro-optical components such as miniature LEDs into the fiber. This can be done by merging the LEDs and conductive modules, which are then incorporated into the fiber using thermal drawing techniques (Fig. 4e).⁶³ However, this method requires the LEDs to be very small, and the luminescent range may be non-continuous. Alternatively, luminescent fibers can be created by directly incorporating electroluminescent materials into polymers. Researchers have mixed electroluminescent inorganic materials with polymers and then fabricated luminescent fibers through extrusion and coating processes.¹⁰⁶ When these luminescent fibers are interwoven with transparent conductive fibers, textile displays are created. The intersections of luminescent and conductive fibers form stable emissive sites that remain unaffected by textile deformation (Fig. 4f).¹⁰⁵ It is worth noting that LED-based systems and electroluminescent textiles differ in their display control mechanisms. LED matrices require individual transistor-based control circuits, while electroluminescent textiles use orthogonal electrode configurations similar to those in liquid crystal displays. This configuration allows for dynamic pattern generation through coordinated voltage and frequency control across the orthogonal electrodes.

3. Architecture and integration of interactive systems

3.1. System architecture

The architecture of fiber-based interactive systems typically comprises several functional modules, including the textile substrate, electronic circuits, input interface, signal analysis unit, output interface, and power supply module. These modules are systematically integrated to facilitate the seamless perception, transmission, and processing of external stimuli, enabling intelligent and responsive behavior within the textile platform. Furthermore, the design of system modules is customized according to specific interaction modalities and corresponding application requirements.

Textile substrate. The interactive system utilizes a textile substrate as the foundational integration platform, with functional components strategically embedded or distributed across its surface (Fig. 5a).¹⁰⁸ The intrinsic properties of the textile substrate, along with its structural design, play a critical role in determining the overall reliability of the system. The material properties of the substrate fibers, such as hygroscopicity, surface texture, and mechanical strength, are essential design factors. For example, hydrophobic textiles with metallized components can reduce the risk of short circuits in humid environments, while hydrophilic textiles help dissipate static electricity, protecting surface-mounted electronics.¹⁰⁹ In addition, the weaving structure of the textile and its integrated components influence the mechanical behavior of the system. Knitted textiles, for instance, provide high elasticity and deformation tolerance, allowing the textile to conform to complex body shapes and postures without affecting device performance (Fig. 5b).¹¹⁰

Fig. 5 (a) Photograph of a long-sleeved shirt substrate hosting a network with a single hub and eight terminals. Reproduced with permission from ref. 108. Copyright 2020, Springer Nature. (b) Photograph of a therapeutic glove conforming to hand movements. Reproduced with permission from ref. 110. Copyright 2024, Springer Nature. (c) Photograph of integrated circuits and electronic components on a textile. Reproduced with permission from ref. 111. Copyright 2021, Springer Nature. (d) Photograph of a textile-based wireless system where the electronic circuit was fabricated using an embroidery method. Reproduced with permission from ref. 114. Copyright 2022, Springer Nature. (e) Illustration and photograph of the circuit patterned in fabric via in-textile photolithography technology. Reproduced with permission from ref. 117. Copyright 2024, Springer Nature.

Integration of functional components into textile substrates generally follows three main strategies: embedding electronic devices, printing conductive circuits, and weaving functional fibers. Embedding or printing components with mechanical properties mismatched to the highly deformable textile substrate can lead to structural failure, such as delamination and damage to interconnects during repeated use. In contrast, the weaving approach offers improved mechanical conformity by integrating functional fibers directly into the textile substrates. This method facilitates reliable and seamless incorporation of sensing, computing, and other electronic functions, enabling continuous monitoring of physiological and environmental signals (Fig. 5c).¹¹¹

Electronic circuits. Electronic circuits serve as essential interconnects in textile-based systems, enabling signal transmission among distributed functional units.¹¹² Their integration requires the formation of highly conductive, high-resolution patterns while maintaining key textile properties, such as flexibility, breathability, and mechanical robustness.¹¹³ Three primary circuit integration techniques are commonly employed: incorporation of conductive yarns, printing of conductive inks, and photolithographic patterning. Conductive yarns, such as silver-coated nylon and stainless steel fibers, can be integrated into textiles through embroidery, adhesive bonding, or weaving (Fig. 5d).¹¹⁴ These conductive pathways can interface with conventional surface-mount or through-hole components. Although this method preserves the softness and air permeability of the textile, it limits the realization of complex circuit layouts due to incompatibility with standard fabrication techniques. Printed circuits offer a scalable alternative, utilizing conductive inks composed of metallic particles and polymer binders applied directly to the textile surface.¹¹⁵ This approach requires smooth and uniform textile substrates to ensure consistent deposition and reliable electrical performance.¹¹⁶ However, the inherent porosity and fibrous nature of textile surfaces often cause ink diffusion, resulting in blurred pattern edges and reduced resolution. Moreover, mechanical mismatch between printed films and textile substrates may lead to cracking or delamination under strain, while continuous conductive films compromise breathability. To address these challenges, photolithography-based methods have been developed, combining polymer-assisted metal deposition with double-sided patterning (Fig. 5e).¹¹⁷ This technique eliminates the need for polymeric binders, minimizes ink spreading due to capillary effects, and enables precise patterning on rough textile surfaces. It achieves micro-scale resolution while preserving textile porosity and breathability, supporting the integration of high-density, multifunctional circuits for advanced wearable applications.

Input module. Capturing human behavior and physiological states is a fundamental goal in the development of input systems, which can be effectively achieved through the integration of sensors into smart clothing and other wearable technologies.^118,119 These sensors have been widely utilized in various human-computer interaction applications.¹²⁰ Commonly, they are used to monitor physiological parameters, such as perspiration, electromyography, and heart rate, as well as to detect body movements, postures, and environmental variations. The effectiveness of sensor signal acquisition is largely influenced by the nature of human interaction, most of which involves physical contact, particularly hand-object interactions. For instance, stepping onto a pressure-sensitive yoga mat or sitting on a sensor-equipped chair alters the pressure distribution, which can be analyzed to infer specific user activities.^121,122 To assist people with motor impairments caused by conditions like Parkinson's disease, myasthenia gravis, or visual loss, sensor systems should support non-contact interaction. Capacitive bimodal sensors enable this by recognizing gestures and detecting hand proximity at different distances, allowing accurate input without direct touch.¹²³

A smart glove system based on triboelectric fiber sensors is presented to demonstrate the feasibility of such sensory-response technology (Fig. 6a). This system integrates six sensing units, signal processing, wireless communication, and a human-machine interface, enabling accurate detection of finger and wrist motion. During wrist bending, triboelectric signals are generated and subsequently amplified, filtered, digitized, and wirelessly transmitted via Bluetooth to control virtual hands or robotic manipulators.¹²⁴ Despite these developments, existing sensor architectures exhibit notable limitations, especially in achieving large-area and high-resolution sensing capabilities. Most designs rely on single- or double-fiber contact structures, leading to localized signal output and low spatial resolution. Furthermore, the system generates a high volume of data, and signal quality is often affected by crosstalk between adjacent sensing elements.

Fig. 6 (a) Schematic and demonstration of the intelligent gesture-capturing system based on triboelectric sensors. Reproduced with permission from ref. 124. Copyright 2019, The Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) Schematic of various electronic devices assembled on a single microfiber. Reproduced with permission from ref. 129. Copyright 2022, Springer Nature. (c) Schematic of the reconfigurable textile memristor. Reproduced with permission from ref. 130. Copyright 2022, Springer Nature. (d) Schematic of wearable wireless haptics from air-permeable vibrotactile actuators. Reproduced with permission from ref. 133. Copyright 2023, Wiley-VCH GmbH.

Analysis module. The physical signals acquired by sensors must undergo data processing, conversion to digital form, and computational analysis to extract meaningful information. In interactive sensing applications, resistive sensors are among the most commonly used types. The conversion of resistive signals to digital data can generally be categorized into three main approaches: (1) transistor-or diode-controlled circuits, (2) multiplexer- and operational amplifier (op-amp)-assisted circuits, and (3) incidence matrix approach.¹²⁵ Resistive signals can be processed and amplified using various electronic components, such as transistors, diodes, multiplexers, switches, op-amps, current sources, and analog-to-digital converters (ADCs). For instance, in a pressure sensing application, a metal strip integrated into the textile detects resistance changes caused by pressure. These changes are then connected to an ADC for signal sampling, and the resulting pressure signal is output through the ADC channel.¹²⁶

Computational analysis of signals is facilitated by computing devices. There are two main approaches for integrating computing systems into textiles: embedding rigid computing devices into textiles and weaving electronic fibers with logical functionality.^127,128 Traditional computing devices are typically manufactured using CMOS processing technology on silicon wafers, which makes them mechanically rigid, brittle, and planar, thus incompatible with textile processing. Integrating commercial computing chips into flexible textile substrates is challenging, as these chips cannot withstand the bending, wear, and washing typically encountered by textiles. Therefore, embedding computing functions into fibers is a more suitable approach for realizing computational textiles. Recently, small device cells have been integrated into narrow, thin fiber surfaces, such as through high-resolution maskless photolithography combined with a capillary tube-assisted coating method, to fabricate FETs and other electronic components (Fig. 6b).¹²⁹ An alternative approach involves designing transistor devices in the form of a textile composed of overlapping transistor fibers. These transistor fibers serve as computational components, functioning as artificial synapses and neurons within intelligent heating textiles integrated with thermal resistors (Fig. 6c). Textiles will autonomously adjust the temperature, such that they are recognized as cold when the ambient temperature is low. This low-temperature signal will cause the artificial synapses to adjust the weights by applying the input pulse signal. Increased conductivity of the synaptic devices reduces their own voltage division and further enhances voltage division in the artificial neurons. Depending on the threshold properties of the artificial neurons, the varying voltage division will trigger the spiking behavior, producing firing responses with different values, which determine the heating time and duration.¹³⁰

Output module. The output device plays a critical role in interactive systems by providing feedback to the user. These outputs can manifest in various forms, including sound, shape, visual display, and temperature, corresponding to human sensory modalities, such as hearing, touch, vision, and temperature perception. To generate sound in textiles, researchers have developed textile-based speakers that can be directly integrated into the textile surface. These speakers are created by sewing conductive yarns onto the textile, forming a thread pattern. When subjected to electrical signals, the device vibrates the surrounding air, producing sound. A sound output of approximately 55 to 60 dB can be achieved with a 5 W power sound source.¹³¹ Another approach to sound generation involves rapidly heating the surrounding air to induce expansion, such as through the use of electrically heated graphene-based materials.¹³² Tactile stimulation, resulting from human contact with textiles, can be achieved by altering the shape of the textile. For instance, a vibrotactile actuator made of deformable textiles has been integrated into a glove. This glove, in combination with a sensor array glove, demonstrates a wireless haptic feedback system in a wearable application (Fig. 6d). The system is capable of distinguishing 32 different English and Chinese characters and symbols through haptic feedback, achieving an overall accuracy of 97.8%.¹³³ Furthermore, the autonomous deformation of textiles or fibers can assist in human motion, with the contraction of the textiles or fibers mimicking muscle contraction.¹³⁴ Regarding visual output, flexible luminous textiles offer an alternative to conventional rigid display devices. These textiles, woven from luminescent fibers, can display simple colors and customizable luminescent patterns. A brain-interface camouflage system has been developed, which decodes visual information from the brain's response and drives the textile display through the use of luminous fibers.¹³⁵ Temperature is a direct sensory input that can be perceived by human skin, and textiles with heating or cooling functions can automatically adjust their temperature. A novel smart heating control system with a sandwich-structured textile has been developed. This system utilizes silver metal nanofiber network films as a wearable heater and platinum nanofiber network arrays as temperature sensors. Upon applying voltage to the conductive network, heat is generated at levels suitable for human comfort. Real-time heating and temperature detection/control are wirelessly managed through Bluetooth devices in smartphones.¹³⁶

Power module. In long-term operating interactive systems, power is essential for ensuring continuous operation. The energy supply system typically consists of energy harvesting and energy storage components.^137,138 Energy harvesting devices are capable of converting ambient environmental energy sources, such as thermal, bioenergy, and photovoltaic energy, into electricity. Energy storage devices efficiently store the energy generated by harvesting devices and can deliver electrical energy at the required power level.¹³⁹ In wearable interactive systems, the human body itself can be viewed as a source of energy. Human-derived energy primarily exists in two forms: biomechanical motion and thermal dissipation. Biomechanical energy generated by body movements can be harvested through piezoelectric or triboelectric mechanisms. For example, stretchable triboelectric fibers exhibit exceptional electrical output under repetitive human body motions. These fibers can be woven into deformable and washable textiles, achieving high power outputs of up to 490 V and 175 nC.¹⁴⁰ Additionally, thermal energy from body heat can be harvested using thermoelectric systems. Researchers have proposed a simplified thermoelectric fiber design consisting of alternating p/n segments created through gel extrusion. These thermoelectric fibers can be applied to curved surface energy harvesters.¹⁴¹ Such approaches show promise for scalable biological power generation and could enable the efficient, direct utilization of human waste heat in future self-powered textiles. To store the harvested energy, fiber-based supercapacitors and batteries are employed in wearable applications, as they not only meet energy storage requirements but also offer excellent integrability.^142,143

3.2. Integration strategies

The integration of functional elements into textile systems can be achieved through four principal approaches: embedding, printing, weaving, and knitting. Among these, weaving and knitting are particularly suitable for combining functional fibers with textile substrates due to their compatibility with conventional manufacturing techniques. For reliable fabrication of fiber-based electronic textiles, several key factors need to be considered: (1) each functional fiber should operate independently without mechanical or electromagnetic interference; (2) the fibers require sufficient mechanical strength and flexibility to endure standard weaving or knitting processes; (3) the geometry and materials of the fibers should align well with current textile production methods.¹⁴⁴

Embedding. Rigid electronic components are typically integrated into textiles via embedding techniques in wearable interactive systems. Both the electronic components and textile substrates are frequently subjected to bending and stretching due to body movement. This dynamic environment requires a reliable interface between rigid and flexible materials. For example, sixteen LEDs and other electronic components are fixed within a textile surface by embedded welding techniques (Fig. 7a).¹⁴⁵ Embedded connection is generally classified into two categories: (1) detachable connection methods, which employ auxiliary components, such as USB connectors, for connecting power sources or other devices to smart clothing; and (2) permanent connection methods, which establish stable, long-term bonds between rigid electronics and flexible textile substrates. Permanent connection techniques in electronic textiles include soldering, crimping, conductive adhesives, and stitching. These connection techniques may, to some extent, compromise the overall system performance. Soldering offers low contact resistance but is mechanically brittle. To prevent fabric damage, low-temperature solders (<200 °C) are typically used. Crimping avoids heat by using pressure-sensitive materials but lacks long-term mechanical durability. Conductive adhesives cure at low temperatures, but their high contact resistance reduces electrical performance. Stitching with conductive yarns enables integration and interconnection but suffers from increased resistance after repeated bending or washing.¹⁴⁶

Fig. 7 Integration strategies for interactive textile systems. (a) Photograph of LEDs embedded in fabric. Reproduced with permission from ref. 145. Copyright 2020, IEEE. (b) Photograph of weaving technology for the fabrication of heater textile. Reproduced with permission from ref. 150. Copyright 2018, Wiley-VCH GmbH. (c) Knitting method for fabricating a textile actuator. Reproduced with permission from ref. 154. Copyright 2017, American Association for the Advancement of Science. (d) Inkjet printing of ink onto fabric. Reproduced with permission from ref. 158. Copyright 2021, Wiley-VCH GmbH.

Weaving. Weaving is a common method for integrating functional fibers or yarns into textiles, where interlaced warp and weft configurations provide essential support for their functionality.¹⁴⁷ This process applies minimal mechanical stress to the fibers, making it suitable for rigid or brittle materials.¹⁴⁸ Three primary weaving techniques are used in functional textile manufacturing: plain weave, twill weave, and satin weave. The plain weave alternates perpendicular warp and weft yarns, offering advantages, such as compactness, smooth surface, abrasion resistance, and good air permeability, making it the most widely used structure for functional textiles. The twill weave creates diagonal patterns with at least one warp-weft intersection per two yarns, while the satin weave minimizes interlacing points, resulting in a better display of the surface characteristics of the fibers. Additionally, the interwoven structure serves as a versatile platform for the operation of functional components. Components of similar specifications, such as pressure sensors, strain sensors, circuit boards, logic devices, and batteries, can be integrated into the textile via weaving, enabling the development of multifunctional textile electronic systems.¹⁴⁹ For example, modified cotton and copper threads were used as warp and weft yarns to produce heated textiles through weaving machines (Fig. 7b). Cotton yarns served as the textile substrate, while copper wires were directly interwoven as conductors, eliminating the need for conductive pastes or adhesive tapes. The resulting textiles exhibited uniform temperature distribution without cold spots, and maintained stability under mechanical deformation.¹⁵⁰

In addition to single-layer weaving structures, multi-layer weaving architectures can be designed by employing multiple sets of warp yarns, enabling the creation of textiles with integrated functionalities. These multi-layer configurations facilitate the segregation of distinct functionalities, thereby reducing the likelihood of interference between different functional components.¹⁵¹ Furthermore, such structures can accommodate high-density conductive yarn networks, which can be arranged both within individual layers and across layers. This approach presents significant potential for the development of multi-layer textile circuit boards with enhanced functional integration.

Knitting. Knitting is a textile manufacturing technique that converts continuous one-dimensional fibers or yarns into interconnected network structures through systematic loop formation using knitting machines.¹⁵² This process generates interlacing loops oriented in vertical or horizontal directions, resulting in highly elastic and stretchable fabric architectures. Compared to woven textiles, knitted fabrics exhibit several intrinsic advantages, including structural looseness, superior elastic recovery, and increased porosity. As a result of their high elastic deformation capacity, knitted structures demonstrate remarkable adaptability to non-planar and geometrically complex surfaces via localized deformation. This feature is particularly beneficial in applications involving substantial or spatially heterogeneous strains, as the looped architecture enables conformal contact with irregular surface topographies.¹⁵³ Additionally, the loop-based configuration contributes significantly to overall stretchability, making knitted fabrics well-suited for applications requiring large mechanical deformations. Experimental investigations have revealed significant functional advantages of the knitted configuration over woven counterparts in textile actuators fabricated from electroactive polymer-coated cotton yarns. Notably, the strain output of knitted actuators was found to be 53 times higher than that of woven actuators under identical testing conditions (Fig. 7c).¹⁵⁴ Nevertheless, during the knitting process, fibers or yarns are exposed to mechanical stresses, such as tensile loading, friction, and bending, which may result in damage or rupture. Therefore, fibers and yarns intended for knitting must satisfy stringent mechanical performance criteria, particularly regarding tensile strength and durability, to ensure structural integrity and long-term reliability of the resulting textile products.

Printing. Printing technologies are widely employed to fabricate conductive pathways and functional patterns on various textile substrates. Common strategies include stencil printing, screen printing, and digital printing, each offering distinct advantages in terms of resolution, scalability, and material compatibility.^155,156 The quality of printed patterns is strongly influenced by both the properties of the textile substrates and the formulation of inks. Specifically, surface characteristics of textiles, such as roughness and hydrophobicity, play a crucial role in determining printing fidelity. Smooth surfaces promote uniform ink deposition and well-defined pattern edges, whereas rough or hydrophobic surfaces often lead to ink spreading and irregular features due to capillary absorption by the fibrous structure.¹⁵⁷ To improve substrate flatness and wettability, surface modification techniques, such as plasma treatment and functional coatings, including hydrophilic polymers, are commonly applied. In addition, ink formulation parameters, such as rheological behavior, solvent sustainability, and substrate compatibility, must be carefully tuned to ensure optimal performance. A representative study reported the development of additive-free MXene aqueous inks, with viscosity and surface tension adjusted through ink concentration and flake size control. These optimized inks enabled the reliable fabrication of high-resolution conductive patterns via inkjet printing (Fig. 7d). This approach demonstrated seamless integration of printed electronics into wearable textile systems, including both knitted and woven fabrics, highlighting the potential of MXene-based inks for next-generation flexible and wearable electronic applications.¹⁵⁸

4. Application of interactive systems

The development of interactive electronic textiles is closely driven by advances in materials science, flexible electronics, and human-computer interaction technologies. By embedding interactive functionalities into conventional textile structures, researchers are creating next-generation wearable systems designed for natural user interaction, where user inputs are dynamically processed and translated into appropriate feedback outputs. At the core of these systems are multifunctional fibers that retain their performance under mechanical deformation. These fibers are integrated with sensors, actuators, and signal-processing modules, enabling real-time, bidirectional communication between the user and the digital environment. As a result, interactive textiles serve as intelligent interfaces that seamlessly bridge human perception with digital systems. This section explores the potential of interactive textiles in emerging wearable applications, with a focus on three key areas: interactive display systems, extended reality systems, and personalized healthcare systems.

4.1. Interactive display systems

Interactive textile-based display systems represent a promising class of next-generation wearable devices, integrating dynamic visual interfaces with flexible, wearable platforms. These systems feature multi-modal sensing capabilities, such as liquid exposure, environmental stimulus, kinetic motion, and physiological signals. They provide adaptive visual feedback through three key components: a sensing module, a data processing unit, and a display module. The textile-based display should maintain optoelectronic stability under mechanical deformations, such as bending, folding, and stretching, while effectively displaying diverse forms of information, including text, audio cues, and physiological data. This technology holds significant potential across various application domains, including biomedical monitoring, human-machine interaction, and information communication. In biomedical monitoring, real-time visualization of biometric data, such as pulse and blood oxygen levels, is achieved through body-conforming luminescent skins that provide intuitive optical feedback.^159,160 In human-machine interaction, immersive augmented reality experiences are enabled by integrating tactile and visual feedback systems.³⁵ For information communication, dynamic displays can be wirelessly controlled via Bluetooth or biological signals, enabling real-time data exchange.¹⁶¹

The evolution of textile displays has progressed from rigid LED panels to the seamless integration of luminescent fibers into textile substrates. One direct approach to incorporating display capabilities is the embedding of micro-scale LEDs within individual fibers. For example, a fully functional fiber-based smart display system utilizes LED-integrated fibers as its display medium, enabling color modulation through RGB control and grayscale adjustment (Fig. 8a). Additionally, the system integrates six functional components, including a radio frequency (RF) antenna, photodetector, touch sensor, temperature sensor, biosensor, and energy storage unit, onto a natural cotton textile platform for external stimulus detection. These components capture environmental and physiological signals, which are then processed and visualized in real time through the textile display. This design strategy enables the development of large-area, high-performance smart textiles and provides a foundation for next-generation applications in smart homes and IoT.³⁵ Alternatively, large-area functional textile displays can be fabricated using flexible electroluminescent materials. In such systems, the interweaving of transparent conductive fibers and luminescent fibers forms a cross-point array, where each fiber intersection acts as a luminous unit. Enabled by the weft-warp network structure, each unit can be individually addressed and illuminated in a programmable manner through a control circuit, allowing advanced functionalities, such as navigation path visualization and projection of social information (Fig. 8b).¹⁶²

Fig. 8 Applications of wearable interactive systems. (a) Photograph of a smart textile for lighting and display. Reproduced with permission from ref. 35. Copyright 2022, Springer Nature. (b) Schematic and photograph of a textile integrated with a display and keyboard for use as a communication platform. Reproduced with permission from ref. 162. Copyright 2021, Springer Nature. (c) Schematic of a self-powered dancing blanket. Reproduced with permission from ref. 164. Copyright 2017, Wiley-VCH GmbH. (d) Schematic and photograph of an interaction system based on the braided electronic cord. Reproduced with permission from ref. 165. Copyright 2022, Springer Nature. (e) Schematic and photograph of a wireless closed-loop smart textile system for monitoring temperature and pressure, and regulating temperature. Reproduced with permission from ref. 172. Copyright 2024, Wiley-VCH GmbH. (f) Schematic of a fiber-based electrochemical fabric and photograph of a subject wearing the sensing fabric. Reproduced with permission from ref. 173. Copyright 2018, Wiley-VCH GmbH.

4.2. Extended reality system

Extended reality (XR) technology integrates elements from both the virtual and real worlds, such as objects and environmental settings, to create dynamic digital experiences.¹⁶³ In extended reality technology, interactive textiles can precisely detect physical interactions of the user with the real world and provide immediate physical feedback corresponding to virtual targets. This process mimics human behavior, where individuals perceive their surroundings through sensory systems and generate action feedback. Upon stimulation, sensory organs, such as the eyes, ears, nose, and skin, transmit signals to neural processing centers, including the spinal cord and brain, via specific neural pathways. These centers integrate and interpret the sensory inputs and subsequently relay signals to effector organs, such as extraocular muscles, skeletal muscles, and laryngeal muscles, to generate appropriate motor responses. Interactive textiles replicate this process of human behavior and physiological response through fiber-based electronic devices, synchronizing virtual actions with the physical movements of the user. Moreover, they allow users to experience multimodal sensory feedback, including auditory, visual, and tactile sensations, thereby enhancing the feeling of truly “being present” in virtual environments.

To improve user interactivity and immersion, interactive textiles must meet three fundamental technical requirements: accurate recognition, effective feedback mechanisms, and comfortable wearability. Recent advancements in fiber-based electronics have been progressively addressing these needs. In XR systems, the detection of human behavioral and physiological states can be categorized into three main areas: body motion recognition, tactile and grasping feedback, and real-time monitoring of electrophysiological signals during movement. A self-powered, triboelectric 3D orthogonal woven textile has been developed to detect user interactions while simultaneously harvesting biomechanical energy (Fig. 8c). This textile enables continuous motion tracking and has been applied in a self-powered dance mat, demonstrating its potential for entertainment and interactive experiences.¹⁶⁴ Despite progress in textile-based sensors, many devices remain restricted to laboratory use due to limited wearability and portability. To address this challenge, research has focused on the development of compact, wearable devices suitable for daily use. These devices can be integrated into textiles and applied to body areas, such as the fingers, arms, and feet. A representative example is a braided electronic rope embedded with imperceptible, scalable capacitive pressure sensors. With a pressure-sensitive yarn core, it detects hand gestures by monitoring contact location, area, and movement, within a diameter of only 2.5 mm. The device maintains stable performance over 10 000 compression cycles. Its compact form factor, similar to braided hair ties, enables seamless integration into everyday settings and supports long-term, unobtrusive human-machine interaction (Fig. 8d).¹⁶⁵

4.3. Personal healthcare system

The ideal personal healthcare system is an intelligent, integrated medical service framework that enables dynamic access to health-related information, interconnects diverse medical resources, and proactively addresses healthcare needs.¹⁶⁶ By leveraging information and communication technologies, the system facilitates preventive care, chronic disease management, and real-time health monitoring.¹⁶⁷ In this context, interactive textiles play a critical role by offering patient-centric solutions that support disease prevention and clinical intervention through accurate data acquisition and intelligent analysis. These textiles incorporate fiber-based sensors for continuous real-time monitoring of physiological parameters. By leveraging machine learning, big data analytics, and wireless communication, interactive textiles provide personalized health monitoring and can assist in delivering supportive healthcare functions.

In the healthcare domain, interactive textiles employ fiber-based sensors to enable continuous monitoring of physiological data, including both biophysical signals such as body motion and temperature, and biochemical signals, including the composition of body fluids and exhaled gases. These sensors provide continuous, accurate, and noninvasive or minimally invasive monitoring, facilitating a wide range of biomedical applications. Examples include respiratory monitoring for early detection and prevention of breathing disorders, gait analysis via foot pressure sensors for postural correction, continuous pulse monitoring for cardiovascular disease management, and body temperature tracking for the remote detection of fever or hypothermia.^168–171 Beyond simple signal acquisition, interactive textiles integrate real-time data processing and healthcare support functionalities. For instance, in thermal management, digital fibers embedded with hundreds of microscale temperature sensors and storage units transform garments into intelligent systems. When incorporated into clothing, these fibers capture spatially distributed temperature data across the body, recording up to 270 minutes of data over several days during various physical activities. By applying machine learning-based inference algorithms, the system achieves up to 96% accuracy in classifying physical activity patterns based on temporal thermal signatures.¹⁷¹ Wireless data transmission further enhances continuous monitoring, enabling integration with mobile devices or cloud platforms for remote thermal management. This capability supports the development of closed-loop systems for personalized thermal regulation. For example, a flexible wireless system integrates fiber-based temperature and pulse sensors with textile heating elements to provide real-time, location-specific thermal feedback (Fig. 8e). Body temperature data can also be transmitted wirelessly to smartphones for immediate analysis.¹⁷² In addition to biophysical signals, biochemical sensing plays a pivotal role in health monitoring by detecting biomarkers in sweat, saliva, urine, and exhaled gases. A representative system is a wearable electrochemical textile that simultaneously monitors multiple biomarkers: glucose, sodium (Na⁺), potassium (K⁺), calcium (Ca²⁺), and pH levels, enabling real-time analysis for personalized healthcare (Fig. 8f).¹⁷³

5. Conclusion and outlook

This review provides a concise overview of interactive textiles constructed from multifunctional fibers, with an emphasis on the design and fabrication of fiber-shaped sensors, actuators, controllers, and displays, as well as representative applications of interactive textile systems. The incorporation of a wide range of functional materials, including metals, semiconductors, carbon-based compounds, functional polymers, and microscale devices, into fiber architectures enables the realization of diverse functionalities within textile platforms. Furthermore, advanced fabrication techniques, such as embedding, weaving, knitting, and printing, facilitate the seamless integration of these functional fibers into textile substrates, thereby preserving the inherent comfort of fabrics while imparting intelligent capabilities. As a result, next-generation textiles are expected to integrate sensing, computation, actuation, display, energy devices, and wireless communication into fully interactive systems. These integrated systems hold great promise for real-time monitoring of physiological signals, offering transformative potential for applications in healthcare, wearables, and human-machine interaction. Despite significant progress over the past two decades, further advancement of multifunctional fiber-based electronic devices and wearable interactive systems still face several critical challenges, including material compatibility, scalability, durability, and system-level integration.

(1) Material limitations: conductive materials, including metal nanoparticles and carbon-based compounds, often have poor adhesion to textile substrates. This leads to delamination and performance loss under mechanical stress or after washing. In addition, the viscoelastic nature of polymer substrates causes hysteresis and nonlinear responses, which reduce sensor accuracy. Balancing high sensitivity with a wide sensing range remains a major challenge.

(2) Mechanical durability: repeated mechanical deformation, such as stretching, bending, and twisting, presents significant challenges to both the structural and functional integrity of materials. The mechanical mismatch between rigid electronics and flexible textiles often causes interfacial delamination, microfractures, and degradation of conductive pathways.

(3) Signal integrity: wearable systems, including fiber-based and other types, are widely used in interactive scenarios, where body motion and environmental disturbances can interfere with signal acquisition and transmission, potentially leading to inaccurate or distorted sensor outputs. The unstable interface between the device and the human body can introduce noise or false signals. Achieving reliable signal detection and recognition in wearable systems remains a significant challenge.

(4) Large-scale production: current manufacturing methods are still limited to laboratory-scale production due to low yield, poor reproducibility, and high cost. In addition, quality control for detecting defects, such as microcracks and conductivity variations, remains underdeveloped in continuous production lines, leading to inconsistent performance.

(5) Power supply: interactive systems consist of multiple real-time operating modules, which require a continuous and reliable power supply. Thus, fiber-shaped power devices should be further improved in terms of energy conversion efficiency and energy density to meet practical application needs.

Addressing these challenges will require interdisciplinary innovations in materials science, nanofabrication, and AI-driven adaptive systems, ultimately bridging the gap between laboratory prototypes and commercially viable solutions. In addition, interactive textiles will expand beyond traditional applications, influencing fields such as human-computer interaction, augmented reality, and personalized healthcare. This progress is expected to lead to a future where technology integrates with human biology and supports sustainable development.

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts to declare.

Data availability

No primary research results, software or code have been included and no new data were generated or analysed as part of this review.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52373201 and 52103252) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (2232024Y-01 and 2232024A-05).

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