Yu Zhanga,
Hong Zhanga,
Jia Zhanga,
Jiaxi Wanga and
Zhicheng Li*ab
aSchool of Materials Science and Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, P.R. China. E-mail: zhchli@csu.edu.cn; Fax: +86-731-8887-6692; Tel: +86-731-8887-7740
bState Key Laboratory of Powder Metallurgy, Central South University, Changsha 410083, P.R. China
First published on 24th November 2015
The magnetron sputtering technique was employed to produce carbon-coated SnO2 (CCSO) thin films, which were applied as an anode material for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). The CCSO shows better electrochemical properties than the pure SnO2 material. The CCSO thin film has a specific discharge capacity of 650 mA h g−1 with a capacity retention rate of 72% after 100 cycles, while the pure SnO2 has only 207 mA h g−1 with a capacity retention rate of 19%. High-resolution transmission electron microscopic analysis provides crucial information that the magnetron-sputtered carbon coating has an amorphous feature and shows excellent durability because the carbon film is coated tightly on the surface of the SnO2 active materials through the discharging and charging cycles. The amorphous carbon coating on the surface of SnO2 thin film reduced the electrode deterioration, and effectively improved the conductivity and electrochemical stability of the electrode in LIBs.
Much work has been devoted to alloy-type tin-based anodes, SnO2 in particular. Two principle electrochemical processes occur in SnO2 based anodes during charge–discharge cycling:4
SnO2 + 4Li+ + 4e− ↔ Sn + 2Li2O | (1) |
Sn + xLi+ + xe− ↔ LixSn (0 ≤ x ≤ 4.4) | (2) |
The complete discharging processes comprise the reduction of SnO2 and the alloying of metallic Sn to Li4.4Sn, which lead to a whole discharge capacity as high as 1491 mA h g−1 (782 mA h g−1 theoretically reversible as shown in eqn (2)).5 The high theoretical capacity is quite intriguing yet alloying–dealloying processes are always accompanied by an intractable volume change of up to 250%.6,7 Inevitably, the mechanical structure of the anode material fails and active materials lose contact with the current collector, causing severe capacity fading.
Hybridizing SnO2 with buffering materials such as carbon, Cu and conducting polymers is an effective method to tackle the aforementioned problems whilst improving the conductivity of SnO2.8–12 Carbon has won a reputation in both anode or cathode surface coating owing to its high stability and compatibility, which has stimulated extensive study and utilization in composite electrodes by various techniques. Typical carbon-coating techniques include spray pyrolysis, the wet chemical method, hydrothermal/solvothermal methods, calcination after polymer coating, sol–gel reaction, etc.13–17 These approaches generally involve a mixture of carbon precursor and base material in the preparation process, during which the precursor might induce unwanted phases or morphologies.18 Some methods, for instance, the hydrothermal method, usually require an additional treatment that adds liability to the product.19 It has been reported that nano-scaled Sb-doped SnO2 deposited by magnetron sputtering on copper foil has excellent electrochemical performance as anode material.20 With the magnetron sputtering technique, thin films of different composition and thickness can be easily obtained under well-controlled conditions.
In an attempt to incorporate a SnO2 thin film with carbon coating, SnO2 is deposited on copper foil by radio frequency (RF) magnetron sputtering and carbon is coated on the surface of the thin film by the same technique in the present work. This method provides a new angle on thin film carbon coating to obtain composite materials. The electrochemical properties of the carbon-coated SnO2 thin film are investigated and its microstructure is inspected by transmission electron microscopy (TEM).
Galvanostatic charge–discharge processes were performed on a battery measurement system (Land CT2001A, China) at room temperature. The cells were cycled between 0.01 V and 2.00 V vs. Li/Li+ at a current density of 0.1 C. For rate performance, the cells were tested on the same system at current densities of 0.1 C, 0.2 C, 0.4 C, 0.8 C, 1 C in sequence and 0.1 C again, for 10 cycles at each current density. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) was carried out on an electrochemistry workstation (Gamry Reference 600, USA) at a scanning rate of 0.1 mV s−1 between 0.01 V and 2.00 V. The instrument was also used to measure the electrochemical impedance in order to determine the conduction characteristics of the assembled cells.
A scanning electron microscope (SEM, FEI Quanta 650 FEG) was employed to study the configuration and thickness of the CCSO composite thin film from both plain and cross-sectional views. The sample for the cross-sectional view was obtained by ripping the thin film along a cutting crack. The surface morphology of a clean copper foil was also observed under SEM for comparison. The microstructures and phase components of the SnO2 thin films and CCSO thin films were inspected by a transmission electron microscope (TEM, FEI Tecnai G2 F20) before and after being electrochemically induced. Cells discharged to 0.01 V or charged to 2.00 V were dismantled respectively, and the active materials were elaborately prepared on holey carbon grids for TEM investigation, as was the pristine CCSO material.21,22 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) analysis was also performed on the high-resolution images to determine the reaction products after the cycling.
Fig. 1(b) presents the TEM investigations of a pristine CCSO thin film. The upper-right inset is the selected area electron diffraction (SEAD) pattern and the lower-left inset is the high-resolution TEM (HRTEM) image featuring the carbon layer. The diffraction rings in the SEAD are indexed as polycrystalline SnO2 (P42/mnm, a = b = 4.74 Å, c = 3.18 Å) with a nanostructured characteristic. The average size of SnO2 crystals is estimated to be about 5 nm from the HRTEM image. An evenly distributed thin layer of amorphous carbon can be seen in Fig. 1(b). The thickness of the coated carbon layer is about 3–5 nm, an insignificant amount to affect the structure of the mass SnO2 material. Through FFT analysis of the HRTEM image, the lattice fringe of 3.350 Å is indexed to the {110} plane family of tetragonal SnO2, confirming the pristine structure of tin dioxide.
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Fig. 2 The first three cycles of CV curves of the assembled cells with thin film as test electrode, (a) carbon-coated SnO2 thin film, (b) pure SnO2 thin film. |
Fig. 3 compares the electrochemical impedance spectra (EIS) of the CCSO and pure SnO2 thin films in the assembled cells, in the frequency range of 1 Hz to 1 MHz. Both spectra are comprised of a compressed arc at high frequencies and a tail at low frequencies. The tail is attributed to Warburg diffusion. The ohmic resistances (indicated by the high frequency intercept of the real axis) are close to each other and are very small, but the arcs are of different diameters, suggesting different values of charge transfer resistance (Rct).26 Rct of the CCSO cell is about half of that of the pure SnO2 one. The EIS results demonstrate that carbon coating efficiently improves the conductivity of the cell for the charge transport.
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Fig. 3 Electrochemical impedance spectra of the cells with CCSO thin film and pure SnO2 thin film as tested electrodes, respectively, measured in the frequency range of 1 Hz to 1 MHz. |
The cycling performance and coulombic efficiency of the CCSO thin film are illustrated in Fig. 4(a) and compared with those of a pure SnO2 thin film as shown in Fig. 4(b). Both anode materials show a low specific capacity during the first few cycles, indicating an activating process in the electrodes. The activation process can be attributed to the deficiency of electrolyte permeation into the composite thin film. As shown in Fig. 1, the CCSO thin film has numerous ravines between the cauliflower-shaped protrusions (see in Fig. 1(a)), and the SnO2 active materials are coated by an amorphous carbon layer (see in Fig. 1(b)). Therefore, the electrolyte might not easily permeate into the whole active material in the electrode in the first few cycles. A possible solution to this phenomenon might be to prolong the age time before the assembled cells are applied to charging–discharging, or to use more electrolyte liquid in the cells when assembling. Given enough time and/or electrolyte, the ravines are more likely to be filled with electrolyte, leading to faster activation of the reaction between electrolyte and the active material.27
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Fig. 4 Cycling performances of thin films at 0.1 C for 100 cycles, (a) carbon-coated SnO2 thin film, (b) pure SnO2 thin film. |
The specific charge capacity of the CCSO electrode reaches a maximum value of 858 mA h g−1 at the 7th cycle, while that of pure SnO2 reaches 1049 mA h g−1 at the 3rd cycle. The specific discharge capacity follows the same pattern for both materials, with highest values of 906 mA h g−1 at the 5th cycle and 1099 mA h g−1 at the 3rd cycle for CCSO and pure SnO2, respectively. Nevertheless, the specific capacity of pure SnO2 fades much faster than the CCSO electrode. Apparently, the CCSO thin film was activated more slowly than the pure SnO2 thin film, probably due to a ‘barrier effect’ caused by carbon coating. The carbon layer can obstruct electrolyte from permeating through the mass SnO2, thus impeding complete lithiation and limiting the full utilization of the anode material. However, after 100 electrochemical cycles at 0.1 C, only 207 mA h g−1 of specific discharge capacity is retained for pure SnO2, but 650 mA h g−1 for CCSO, corresponding to 19% and 72% of retained capacity, respectively. Coulombic efficiencies (CE) of both thin films stand low at the first few cycles, but increase to ca. 99% in subsequent cycles. While the CE of the pure SnO2 thin film starts to decrease after some 70 cycles, the CCSO one maintains a high CE of approximately 99% through all 100 cycles, demonstrating the superior stability of the anode. In summary, despite the barrier effect of carbon coating on realizing the full potential of SnO2 capacity at the initial cycles, the barrier on the surface of the SnO2 thin film can prevent aggregation of nano-particles and reduce the pulverization caused by volume expansion/shrink during the electrochemical cycling. Furthermore, the highly conductive carbon layer provides good electrical contact and allows for high capacity from active SnO2 particles at later cycles.24,28 The magnetron-sputtered carbon layer plays a significant role as structure constraint and prevents SnO2 from deteriorating and pulverizing owing to its conductive and elastic properties.
Fig. 5 gives some detailed data from charging and discharging analysis of carbon-coated SnO2 thin film. Fig. 5(a) is the capacity–potential relation at the 5th, 10th, 50th and 100th cycles, respectively, and Fig. 5(b) is the differentiated curves for the related cycles. It is evident from Fig. 5(a) that the electrochemical transition at the 100th cycle follows a similar profile as the 50th cycle, but has altered from the 5th and 10th cycles, with various slopes and plateaus at different potentials. These differences are amplified when demonstrated as differentiated capacity curves in Fig. 5(b). At the 5th and 10th cycles, three peaks marked by S1, S2 and S3 show up during discharging at potentials of 0.94 V, 0.56 V and 0.24 V, respectively, while only two peaks marked by S4 and S5 show up during charging at 0.47 V and 1.35 V, respectively. These two cycles are in good agreement with the 2nd and 3rd cycles of CV results, with the discharge peaks slightly shifting to higher potentials. Representing a pair of partially irreversible reactions, both S1 and S5 peaks decline at the 50th cycle as expected, and S2 and S3 keep shifting and turn up at 0.60 V and 0.45 V, respectively. An interesting phenomenon is that S4 splits into two peaks (marked as S4′ and S4′′ in Fig. 5(b) at 0.47 V and 0.62 V, respectively), matching with discharge peaks S3 and S2.25 Apparently, the lithiation and delithiation in this electrode system are two-step redox reactions which are highly reversible even after 100 cycles. The intermediate products can be various lithium–tin compounds such as Li7Sn3, Li5Sn2 and Li7Sn2 as reported by Ouyang et al. in Sb-doped SnO2 thin films.20,29 The charge–discharge manner is quite clear and stable at the 50th cycle and maintains well into the 100th cycle, with only a minor loss of specific discharge capacity of 25 mA h g−1. The superior stability of the anode material might reflect the advantage of carbon-coating on the SnO2 thin film.
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Fig. 5 Electrochemical features of the carbon-coated SnO2 thin film at 5th, 10th, 50th and 100th cycles, (a) plots of capacity vs. potential, (b) differentiated capacity vs. potential relations. |
To examine the stabilizing function of the carbon coating on the LIBs, cells with CCSO anode were tested at different current densities and the results are shown in Fig. 6. The activation process can still be seen at the first few cycles. The specific discharge capacity declines from the highest of 1065 mA h g−1 at the 4th cycle at 0.1 C to 625 mA h g−1 at the 50th cycle at 1 C, and bounces back to 763 mA h g−1 at 60th cycle when the current density was switched to 0.1 C again for 10 cycles. The CCSO thin film preserves a high capacity even at relatively high rates. The results once again prove that magnetron-sputtered carbon coating is an effective way to improve stability of an SnO2 thin film as anode in LIBs.
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Fig. 6 Rate performance of carbon-coated SnO2 thin film at current densities of 0.1 C, 0.2 C, 0.4 C, 0.8 C and 1 C. |
Through analysis of the FFT image in Fig. 7(a), the grains are determined to be Li4.4Sn. After the anode is discharged to 0.01 V, SnO2 is completely reduced to metallic Sn and metallic Sn is fully alloyed with Li+ to form Li4.4Sn, as shown in eqn (1) and (2). Lattice spacings of two grains are identified as {264} (shown in the inset enlarged picture) and {440} plane families of Li4.4Sn phase. In Fig. 7(b), when the anode is charged to 2.00 V, the diffraction rings in the inset are indexed to {110}, {101}, {201} and {211} plane families of SnO2 while some spots are indexed to {101} plane family of Sn. Two representative grains are marked out as SnO2 {110} plane family of 3.350 Å in plane spacing and Sn {101} plane family of 2.792 Å. Lithium ions are extracted from Li4.4Sn and the alloy reverts to Sn and SnO2 during the charging process. Since the 10th cycle is still an early stage of cycling, it is reasonable for Sn to be partially oxidized to SnO2 in this process. HRTEM images provide solid evidence that The CCSO thin film complies with eqn (1) and (2) during cycling under firm and continuous structural protection provided by the magnetron-sputtered carbon layer on the surface.
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