Defect engineering in photocatalysis: formation, chemistry, optoelectronics, and interface studies

Dileep Maarisetty and Saroj Sundar Baral

J. Mater. Chem. A, 2020, 8, 18560
DOI: 10.1039/D0TA04297H

A review on catalysts for electrocatalytic and photocatalytic reduction of N2to ammonia

Shanshan Lin, Xinghua Zhang, Lungang Chen, Qi Zhang, Longlong Ma and Jianguo Liu

Green Chem., 2022, 24, 9003
DOI: 10.1039/D2GC03174D

Photocatalytic fixation of nitrogen to ammonia: state-of-the-art advancements and future prospects

Xingzhu Chen, Neng Li, Zhouzhou Kong, Wee-Jun Ong and Xiujian Zhao

Mater. Horiz., 2018, 5, 9
DOI: 10.1039/C7MH00557A

Photocatalytic nitrogen fixation: the role of defects in photocatalysts

Ming Cheng, Chong Xiao and Yi Xie

J. Mater. Chem. A, 2019, 7, 19616
DOI: 10.1039/C9TA06435D

Progress and challenges in photocatalytic ammonia synthesis

Qing Han, Haimiao Jiao, Lunqiao Xiong and Junwang Tang

Mater. Adv., 2021, 2, 564
DOI: 10.1039/D0MA00590H

Improved N2 photo-fixation performance of nanocrystalline TiO2 films by photon localization effects and Fe doping

Ying-Min Xu, Sheng Chen, Sheng-Li Chen and Ai-Jun Wang

New J. Chem., 2024, 48, 6494
DOI: 10.1039/D3NJ05332F

Electro-synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen at ambient temperature and pressure in ionic liquids

Fengling Zhou, Luis Miguel Azofra, Muataz Ali, Mega Kar, Alexandr N. Simonov, Ciaran McDonnell-Worth, Chenghua Sun, Xinyi Zhang and Douglas R. MacFarlane

Energy Environ. Sci., 2017, 10, 2516
DOI: 10.1039/C7EE02716H

One-step electrocatalytic synthesis of ammonia and acetone from nitrogen and isopropanol in an ionic liquid

Qikun Zhang, Ya'nan Zhao, Liping Yu, Xiaoyang Zhang, Yiling Bei and Bo Tang

Green Chem., 2021, 23, 7685
DOI: 10.1039/D1GC02873A

Band-structure tunability via the modulation of excitons in semiconductor nanostructures: manifestation in photocatalytic fuel generation

Srabanti Ghosh, Dipendu Sarkar, Sweta Bastia and Yatendra S. Chaudhary

Nanoscale, 2023, 15, 10939
DOI: 10.1039/D3NR02116E

Defect engineering and characterization of active sites for efficient electrocatalysis

Xuecheng Yan, Linzhou Zhuang, Zhonghua Zhu and Xiangdong Yao

Nanoscale, 2021, 13, 3327
DOI: 10.1039/D0NR08976A

Heterojunction-based photocatalytic nitrogen fixation: principles and current progress

Hassan Ali, Milan Masar, Ali Can Guler, Michal Urbanek, Michal Machovsky and Ivo Kuritka

Nanoscale Adv., 2021, 3, 6358
DOI: 10.1039/D1NA00565K

Heteropoly Blue/Protonation-Defective Graphitic Carbon Nitride Heterojunction for the Photo-Driven Nitrogen Reduction Reaction

Feng-Rui Li, Ting Wang, Yun-Jiang Li, Xue-Ying Xu, Chun-Hui Ma, Wei-Lin Chen and Guang-Shan Zhu

Inorg. Chem., 2021, 60, 5829
DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.1c00186

Nitrogen photofixation on holey g-C3N4 nanosheets with carbon vacancies under visible-light irradiation

Jianhua Ge, Long Zhang, Jing Xu, Yujie Liu, Daochuan Jiang and Pingwu Du

Chinese Chemical Letters, 2020, 31, 792
DOI: 10.1016/j.cclet.2019.05.030

Recent Advances in Photocatalytic Nitrogen Fixation Based on Two‐Dimensional Materials

Xi‐Cheng Tang, Zhu Ding, Zi‐Hao Wang, Nayab Arif, Yu‐Yan Chen, Luyan Li and Yu‐Jia Zeng

ChemCatChem, 2024, 16
DOI: 10.1002/cctc.202401355

Enhanced Nitrogen Photo Fixation Performance of Transition Metal-Doped Urchin-Like W18O49 Under Visible-Light Irradiation

Jianhua Ge, Jing Xu, Yujie Liu, Long Zhang, Lan Wang and Dehan Wu

NANO, 2019, 14, 1950143
DOI: 10.1142/S1793292019501431

Electron-driven heterogeneous catalytic synthesis of ammonia: Current states and perspective

Ke Wang, Daniel Smith and Ying Zheng

Carbon Resources Conversion, 2018, 1, 2
DOI: 10.1016/j.crcon.2018.06.004

KOH etching graphitic carbon nitride for simulated sunlight photocatalytic nitrogen fixation with cyano groups as defects

Ning Zhou, Pengxiang Qiu, Huan Chen and Fang Jiang

Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, 2018, 83, 99
DOI: 10.1016/j.jtice.2017.11.028

Photochemical impacts on the toxicity of PM2.5

Jialin Xu, Wenxin Hu, Donghai Liang and Peng Gao

Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 2022, 52, 130
DOI: 10.1080/10643389.2020.1816126

Engineering Sulfur Defects, Atomic Thickness, and Porous Structures into Cobalt Sulfide Nanosheets for Efficient Electrocatalytic Alkaline Hydrogen Evolution

Chao Zhang, Yanmei Shi, Yifu Yu, Yonghua Du and Bin Zhang

ACS Catal., 2018, 8, 8077
DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.8b02056

Catalytic Conversion of Dinitrogen into Ammonia under Ambient Reaction Conditions by Using Proton Source from Water

Yoshiaki Tanabe, Kazuya Arashiba, Kazunari Nakajima and Yoshiaki Nishibayashi

Chemistry An Asian Journal, 2017, 12, 2544
DOI: 10.1002/asia.201701067

Design Refinement of Catalytic System for Scale-Up Mild Nitrogen Photo-Fixation

Xiao Hu Wang, Bin Wu, Yongfa Zhu, Dingsheng Wang, Nian Bing Li, Zhichuan J. Xu and Hong Qun Luo

Nano-Micro Lett., 2025, 17
DOI: 10.1007/s40820-025-01695-3

Sulfur vacancy engineering of metal sulfide photocatalysts for solar energy conversion

Na Zhang, Zipeng Xing, Zhenzi Li and Wei Zhou

Chem Catalysis, 2023, 3, 100375
DOI: 10.1016/j.checat.2022.08.021

Fundamentals and Recent Progress of Photocatalytic Nitrogen‐Fixation Reaction over Semiconductors

Shengtao Chen, Dong Liu and Tianyou Peng

Solar RRL, 2021, 5
DOI: 10.1002/solr.202000487

Recent advances in wireless photofixation of dinitrogen to ammonia under the ambient condition: A review

Sriram Mansingh, Kundan Kumar Das, Sabiha Sultana and Kulamani Parida

Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology C: Photochemistry Reviews, 2021, 47, 100402
DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochemrev.2021.100402

Recent development of catalytic strategies for sustainable ammonia production

Supeng Yu, Ting Xiang, Njud S. Alharbi, Bothaina A. Al-aidaroos and Changlun Chen

Chinese Journal of Chemical Engineering, 2023, 62, 65
DOI: 10.1016/j.cjche.2023.03.028

Recent advances in transition metal sulfide-based electrocatalysts and photocatalysts for nitrogen fixation

Tarekegn Heliso Dolla, Thabo Matthews, Nobanathi Wendy Maxakato, Patrick Ndungu and Tiziano Montini

Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry, 2023, 928, 117049
DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2022.117049

Photocatalytic Conversion of Nitrogen to Ammonia with Water on Surface Oxygen Vacancies of Titanium Dioxide

Hiroaki Hirakawa, Masaki Hashimoto, Yasuhiro Shiraishi and Takayuki Hirai

J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2017, 139, 10929
DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b06634

Efficient Nitrogen Fixation Catalyzed by Gallium Nitride Nanowire Using Nitrogen and Water

Mingxin Liu, Yichen Wang, Xianghua Kong, Lida Tan, Lu Li, Shaobo Cheng, Gianluigi Botton, Hong Guo, Zetian Mi and Chao-Jun Li

iScience, 2019, 17, 208
DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2019.06.032

Preparation and photocatalytic N2/H2O to ammonia performance of cadmium sulfide/carbon nanoscrolls

Hai-zhen Zhang, Halidan Maimaiti, Pei-shuai Zhai, Shi-Xin Wang and Bo Xu

Applied Surface Science, 2021, 542, 148639
DOI: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2020.148639

Fabrication of Tubular g‐C3N4 with N‐Defects and Extended π‐Conjugated System for Promoted Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production

Xin Shan, Guifang Ge and Zhongkui Zhao

ChemCatChem, 2019, 11, 1534
DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201801803

Metal–Sulfur Compounds in N2 Reduction and Nitrogenase-Related Chemistry

Kazuki Tanifuji and Yasuhiro Ohki

Chem. Rev., 2020, 120, 5194
DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00544

Roles of sulfur-edge sites, metal-edge sites, terrace sites, and defects in metal sulfides for photocatalysis

Yue Liu, Hou Wang, Xingzhong Yuan, Yan Wu, Haojing Wang, Yong Zen Tan and Jia Wei Chew

Chem Catalysis, 2021, 1, 44
DOI: 10.1016/j.checat.2021.01.002

Insights into the Recent Progress and Advanced Materials for Photocatalytic Nitrogen Fixation for Ammonia (NH3) Production

Manh-Hiep Vu, M. Sakar and Trong-On Do

Catalysts, 2018, 8, 621
DOI: 10.3390/catal8120621

Enhanced photocatalytic nitrogen fixation performance of g-C3N4 under the burning explosion effect

Long Zhang, Jianhua Ge, Tao Zhuang, Xiulong Ding and Xuyang Zheng

Reac Kinet Mech Cat, 2021, 132, 1211
DOI: 10.1007/s11144-021-01947-4

Porous TiWO3/SrWO4 with high titanium molar ratio for efficient photoelectrocatalytic nitrogen reduction under mild conditions

Kaiyi Chen, Xiaohong Xu, Qiong Mei, Jingwei Huang, Guidong Yang and Qizhao Wang

Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2024, 341, 123299
DOI: 10.1016/j.apcatb.2023.123299

Highly selective electrosynthesis of imines via electroreduction coupling of nitroarenes with aryl aldehydes on Co9S8 with positively charged sulfur vacancies

Dianke Xie, Tianyi Yang, Chongyang Ma, Chung-Li Dong, Shuangyin Wang and Yuqin Zou

Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2024, 65, 206
DOI: 10.1016/S1872-2067(24)60115-4

Photo‐ and Photoelectrocatalysis in Nitrogen Reduction Reactions to Ammonia: Interfaces, Mechanisms, and Modeling Simulations

Dimitrij Ješić, Brett Pomeroy, Khaja Mohaideen Kamal, Žan Kovačič, Matej Huš and Blaž Likozar

Adv Energy and Sustain Res, 2024, 5
DOI: 10.1002/aesr.202400083

Photocatalysis and Photoelectrocatalysis Methods of Nitrogen Reduction for Sustainable Ammonia Synthesis

Kemakorn Ithisuphalap, Hanguang Zhang, Lin Guo, Qingui Yang, Haipeng Yang and Gang Wu

Small Methods, 2019, 3
DOI: 10.1002/smtd.201800352

Recent progress towards mild-condition ammonia synthesis

Qianru Wang, Jianping Guo and Ping Chen

Journal of Energy Chemistry, 2019, 36, 25
DOI: 10.1016/j.jechem.2019.01.027

Ultrathin NiFeS Nanomeshes with Sulfur Vacancy for Electrocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution

Aijing Ma, Changhong Wang, Yao Lu, Xuan Wu, Bhekie B. Mamba, Alex T. Kuvarega, Kebede K. Kefeni, Jianzhou Gui and Dan Liu

ChemElectroChem, 2020, 7, 2199
DOI: 10.1002/celc.202000477

Sustainable Nitrogen Photofixation Promoted by Carbon Nitride Supported Bimetallic RuPd Nanoparticles under Mild Conditions

Iago F. de Sá, Pedro H. P. R. Carvalho, Higor A. Centurion, Renato V. Gonçalves and Jackson D. Scholten

ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng., 2021, 9, 8721
DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.1c00977

Photocatalytic nitrogen reduction to ammonia: Insights into the role of defect engineering in photocatalysts

Huidong Shen, Mengmeng Yang, Leiduan Hao, Jinrui Wang, Jennifer Strunk and Zhenyu Sun

Nano Res., 2022, 15, 2773
DOI: 10.1007/s12274-021-3725-0

Photocatalytic ammonia synthesis from nitrogen in water using iron oxides: Comparative efficiency of goethite, magnetite, and hematite

Cátia Alexandra Podence Alves, Priscila Hasse Palharim, Bruna Pratto, Andre Luiz da Silva, Douglas Gouvêa and Bruno Ramos

Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry, 2025, 460, 116159
DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2024.116159

Defect Engineering in Photocatalytic Nitrogen Fixation

Run Shi, Yunxuan Zhao, Geoffrey I. N. Waterhouse, Shuai Zhang and Tierui Zhang

ACS Catal., 2019, 9, 9739
DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.9b03246

An Experimentally Verified LC‐MS Protocol toward an Economical, Reliable, and Quantitative Isotopic Analysis in Nitrogen Reduction Reactions

Sandra Elizabeth Saji, Haijiao Lu, Ziyang Lu, Adam Carroll and Zongyou Yin

Small Methods, 2021, 5
DOI: 10.1002/smtd.202000694

Enhanced Photofixation of Dinitrogen to Ammonia over a Biomimetic Metal (Fe,Mo)-Doped Mesoporous MCM-41 Zeolite Catalyst under Ambient Conditions

Suresh Thangudu, Chien-Hou Wu, Chih-Hao Lee and Kuo Chu Hwang

ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng., 2021, 9, 8748
DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.1c01208

Effect of thermal annealing on the properties of nickel sulfide nanostructures: Structural phase transition

Ofeliya O. Balayeva, Abdulsaid A. Azizov, Mustafa B. Muradov, Abel M. Maharramov, Goncha M. Eyvazova, Rashid J. Gasimov and Zamil X. Dadashov

Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing, 2017, 64, 130
DOI: 10.1016/j.mssp.2017.03.021

Boosting the Photocatalytic Activity and Resistance of Photostability of ZnS Nanoparticles

Li Song, Jindou Hu, Xiaoyan Lu, Zhenjiang Lu, Jing Xie, Aize Hao and Yali Cao

Inorg. Chem., 2022, 61, 8217
DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.2c00632

Exploring cutting-edge advances in green ammonia production and storage technologies

Prakash Kumar Sarangi, Rajesh K. Srivastava, J. Gitanjali, Govindasamy Sathiyan, Geetha Venkatesan and Sabariswaran Kandasamy

Fuel, 2024, 371, 131863
DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2024.131863

Photon-Driven Nitrogen Fixation: Current Progress, Thermodynamic Considerations, and Future Outlook

Andrew J. Medford and Marta C. Hatzell

ACS Catal., 2017, 7, 2624
DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.7b00439

Engineering green ammonia photoproduction from nitrogen: Advances, challenges and perspectives

Ying Tang, Yang Song, Juan Jia, Zhipeng Liu, Hui Zeng, Xue Yang and Zebao Rui

Journal of Energy Chemistry, 2026, 112, 111
DOI: 10.1016/j.jechem.2025.07.088

Tapping the solar spectrum through vacancy engineering: Application in environmental remediation and energy production

Charu Juneja, Abhishek Sharma and Sukdeb Pal

Materials Today Chemistry, 2025, 47, 102866
DOI: 10.1016/j.mtchem.2025.102866

Advances in Semiconductor-Based Nanocomposite Photo(electro)catalysts for Nitrogen Reduction to Ammonia

Cheng Zuo and Qian Su

Molecules, 2023, 28, 2666
DOI: 10.3390/molecules28062666

Nitrogen Fixation with Water on Carbon-Nitride-Based Metal-Free Photocatalysts with 0.1% Solar-to-Ammonia Energy Conversion Efficiency

Yasuhiro Shiraishi, Shingo Shiota, Yusuke Kofuji, Masaki Hashimoto, Kiyomichi Chishiro, Hiroaki Hirakawa, Shunsuke Tanaka, Satoshi Ichikawa and Takayuki Hirai

ACS Appl. Energy Mater., 2018, 1, 4169
DOI: 10.1021/acsaem.8b00829

ChemInform Abstract: Photofixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen to Ammonia with a Novel Ternary Metal Sulfide Catalyst under Visible Light.

Yuhui Cao, Shaozheng Hu, Fayun Li, Zhiping Fan, Jin Bai, Guang Lu and Qiong Wang

ChemInform, 2016, 47
DOI: 10.1002/chin.201632015

Defect and Interface Engineering on Two‐Dimensional Nanosheets for the Photocatalytic Nitrogen Reduction Reaction

Wenjun Zhao, Baojun Liu, Jiangzhou Qin, Jun Ke, Lanlan Yu and Xia Hu

ChemPhotoChem, 2020, 4, 5322
DOI: 10.1002/cptc.202000114

A Comprehensive Review on the Recent Development of Ammonia as a Renewable Energy Carrier

Muhammad Heikal Hasan, Teuku Meurah Indra Mahlia, M. Mofijur, I.M. Rizwanul Fattah, Fitri Handayani, Hwai Chyuan Ong and A. S. Silitonga

Energies, 2021, 14, 3732
DOI: 10.3390/en14133732

Photocatalysis for Sustainable Nitrogen Fixation: Fundamentals, Catalyst Design, Nanoarchitectonics, Applications, and Future Prospects

Manisha Sharma, Ashish Kumar, Devanshu Sajwan, Kamlesh Kumari, Bhagyashree Priyadarshini Mishra and Venkata Krishnan

Advanced Sustainable Systems, 2025, 9
DOI: 10.1002/adsu.202400903

Iron-titanium dioxide composite nanoparticles prepared with an energy effective method for efficient visible-light-driven photocatalytic nitrogen reduction to ammonia

Jie Ding, Qin Zhong and Hao Gu

Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2018, 746, 147
DOI: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2018.01.362

Review on photocatalytic and electrocatalytic artificial nitrogen fixation for ammonia synthesis at mild conditions: Advances, challenges and perspectives

Xiaolan Xue, Renpeng Chen, Changzeng Yan, Peiyang Zhao, Yi Hu, Wenjun Zhang, Songyuan Yang and Zhong Jin

Nano Res., 2019, 12, 1229
DOI: 10.1007/s12274-018-2268-5

Sulfur Vacancy-Rich O-Doped 1T-MoS2 Nanosheets for Exceptional Photocatalytic Nitrogen Fixation over CdS

Benteng Sun, Zhangqian Liang, Yeye Qian, Xuesong Xu, Ye Han and Jian Tian

ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2020, 12, 7257
DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b20767

Progress of Metal Oxide (Sulfide)-Based Photocatalytic Materials for Reducing Nitrogen to Ammonia

Jianjun Yang

Journal of Chemistry, 2018, 2018, 1
DOI: 10.1155/2018/3286782

g-C3N4 nanosheets decorated with carbon dots and CdS nanoparticles: Novel nanocomposites with excellent nitrogen photofixation ability under simulated solar irradiation

Hadi Diarmand-Khalilabad, Aziz Habibi-Yangjeh, Davod Seifzadeh, Soheila Asadzadeh-Khaneghah and Elham Vesali-Kermani

Ceramics International, 2019, 45, 2542
DOI: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2018.10.185

Unraveling the Transformation of Cobalt Sulfide in the Hydrogen Evolution Reaction at a High Overpotential: A Step Toward Deciphering the Mechanism

Sepideh Madadkhani, Subhajit Nandy, Keun Hwa Chae, Pavlo Aleshkevych and Mohammad Mahdi Najafpour

ACS Appl. Energy Mater., 2024, 7, 165
DOI: 10.1021/acsaem.3c02390

Vacancy Engineering in 2D Transition Metal Chalcogenide Photocatalyst: Structure Modulation, Function and Synergy Application

Yi Jiang, Haibo Sun, Jiayin Guo, Yunshan Liang, Pufeng Qin, Yuan Yang, Lin Luo, Lijian Leng, Xiaomin Gong and Zhibin Wu

Small, 2024, 20
DOI: 10.1002/smll.202310396