Ferroptosis based on metal‒organic frameworks for tumor therapy

Abstract

Ferroptosis is a novel non-apoptotic form of programmed cell death driven by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation, distinct from apoptosis, necrosis, and autophagy. The core of ferroptosis is the accumulation of lipid peroxides (LPO), resulting from the uncontrolled oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids catalyzed by intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, redox homeostasis and iron metabolism homeostasis in tumor cells can regulate ROS and iron ion levels to avoid cell oxidative stress damage, limiting the therapeutic effect and clinical application of ferroptosis. Fe- and Cu-based metal‒organic frameworks (MOFs) not only serve as nanocarriers for various cargoes, including drugs, photosensitizers, inhibitors, inducers, and sensitizers, but also function as iron/copper ion carriers and ferroptosis inducers. In addition to enhancing ferroptosis with Fe-MOFs and Cu-MOFs, the combination therapy of ferroptosis, chemotherapy, photodynamic therapy, and immunotherapy for tumors is achieved. This highlight article reviews the major achievements of ferroptosis based on Fe-MOFs and Cu-MOFs for tumor therapy over the past 5 years, especially the last 3 years. The future challenges of physiological stability and active targeting of MOF-based delivery systems, as well as the large-scale preparation of Fe-MOFs, and promising prospects of ferroptosis based on Fe-MOFs from clinical translation into practical applications are also outlined.