Functional Nanoprobes for Early Diagnosis and Precision Theranostics of Parkinson's Disease: A Review of Material Strategies and Multimodal Sensing

Abstract

The pressing need for early and accurate diagnosis of Parkinson's disease (PD) has motivated the development of advanced nanoscale diagnostic tools. Functional nanoprobes, owing to their tunable physicochemical properties and versatile surface chemistry, have emerged as powerful platforms for the sensitive and selective detection of PD-related biomarkers, including α-synuclein aggregates, dysregulated metal ions, and neurotransmitters. Unlike conventional diagnostic modalities such as cerebrospinal fluid analysis or neuroimaging, which suffer from invasiveness, high cost, and limited specificity, nanoprobe-based strategies enable minimally invasive, real-time, and multimodal sensing with high spatial and temporal resolution. This review provides a critical overview of recent advances in the rational design and engineering of functional nanoprobes for PD diagnosis and therapeutics. We highlight key material strategies, including organic, inorganic, and hybrid nanosystems, as well as surface functionalization approaches for enhanced blood-brain barrier penetration and targeted biomarker identification. Furthermore, we examine the emerging opportunities for combining diagnostic and therapeutic functions within a single nanoprobe platform, paving the way for precision theranostics. Finally, a critical assessment of current challenges and future perspectives for clinical translation provides insights for the development of next-generation nanomaterial-based tools for early PD management.