Human milk oligosaccharides shape small intestinal microbiota and epithelial transcriptional profile during early life in mice

Abstract

Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are important mediators of infant colonic microbiota and host immunity, yet their region-specific effects on the small intestine remain poorly characterized. To address this, this study established an intervention model using C57BL/6J neonatal mice, in which two HMOs, namely 2′-fucosyllactose (2′FL) and lacto-N-neotetraose (LNnT), were administered daily by oral gavage from postnatal day 7 to day 28. The results showed that both HMOs enhanced systemic anti-inflammatory capacity without affecting pup growth performance. Subsequently, multi-omics analysis of the small intestine in pups revealed that 2′FL activated innate immune pathways and upregulated the expression of genes related to immunomodulation, inflammation, and intestinal barrier function, while also reducing potentially harmful bacteria (e.g., Streptococcus) and enhancing beneficial bacteria (e.g., Ligilactobacillus), with concurrent elevation of anti-inflammatory metabolites such as glycoursodeoxycholic acid and sebacic acid. Interestingly, LNnT activated adaptive immune pathways and elevated the expression of genes involved in immune system development and differentiation, B-cell and T-cell lineage specification, as well as immunoregulation, while reducing harmful bacteria (e.g., Desulfovibrio) and enhancing beneficial bacteria (e.g., Lachnoclostridium), along with increased immunomodulatory metabolites such as tricin and baicalein. Correlation network analysis revealed HMO-specific small intestinal “microbiota–metabolite–immune” axes, wherein microbial changes were strongly associated with metabolite profiles, which in turn correlated with the expression of small intestinal immune-related genes as well as serum inflammatory cytokines. This study demonstrates that HMOs can modulate the small intestinal microbiota and epithelial transcription in a structure-specific manner in pups.