Inverted perovskite solar cells: from fundamentals to scalable commercialization

Abstract

Inverted (p–i–n structure) perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have garnered substantial commercial interest owing to their superior operational stability, solution-processability, and inherent compatibility with tandem architectures. Recent achievements in performance rivaling that of regular (n–i–p structure) devices, coupled with significant progress in large-scale fabrication, have intensified research momentum in this field. Nevertheless, the still-constrained efficiency of inverted PSCs remains a critical challenge that requires fundamental understanding and resolution. Herein, we summarize recent advancements in inverted PSCs, delving into the origins of energy losses and their impact on device performance. We highlight effective strategies to enhance the high-performance capabilities of inverted PSCs, focusing on advances in charge transport layers, interface engineering and perovskite film modification. Furthermore, we critically evaluate the latest progress in scalable fabrication and long-term stability. Finally, we delineate key future research directions essential for achieving high efficiency, durability and manufacturability to ensure the commercial viability of this promising technology.