Photoactivated nanovaccines

Abstract

Photoactivated nanovaccines represent a groundbreaking approach in cancer immunotherapy and infectious disease prevention, leveraging the precise spatiotemporal control of light-responsive nanomaterials to enhance antigen presentation and immune activation. Recent breakthroughs in key components, including adjuvants, nanocarriers, and photosensitizers (PSs), have significantly enhanced the efficacy of photoactivated nanovaccines in tumor immunotherapy and infectious disease control. The integration of stimuli-responsive carriers enables precise control over vaccine release, minimizing off-target effects. Moreover, the integration of photodynamic therapy (PDT) or photothermal therapy (PTT) with nanovaccines enables these systems to induce immunogenic cell death (ICD), modulate the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (ITME), and elicit robust and durable antitumor immune responses. Additionally, these combinations enhance pathogen-killing efficacy and promote the generation of long-term immune memory. This review systematically discusses the principles, design strategies, and biomedical applications of photoactivated nanovaccines in oncology and infectious disease management. We further highlight emerging trends, including personalized nanovaccines and multimodal therapeutic strategies, and discuss the challenges and future directions for their clinical translation. The convergence of nanotechnology and immunotherapy paves the way for next-generation vaccines with unprecedented precision, efficacy, and safety.