Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, analgesics, and their metabolites in the coastal environment: the escape to seawater and concerns

Abstract

Recent literature shows NSAIDs and analgesics as some of the most studied pharmaceuticals in the environment. These drugs, which are readily accessible as over-the-counter medications, have been detected in various environmental samples, including wastewater and surface water. Consequently, these chemicals are transferred to marine and coastal environments, entering marine organisms that play significant roles in the food chain, thereby posing toxic effects on human health. Therefore, the present review aims to comprehensively assess the occurrence, distribution, and environmental impact of a wide range of NSAIDs and analgesic medications in the marine environment worldwide. Marine outfalls and estuaries were viewed as significant sources of pharmaceuticals found in seawater, resulting in their presence in marine organisms considered as seafood. Transformation of the investigated drugs into metabolites is evident, as some transformation products were previously detected in estuaries, seawaters, and fish. In this context, carboxy ibuprofen and hydroxy ibuprofen have been reported in seawater and estuarine waters with concentrations reaching 1227 ng L⁻¹ and 70 ng L⁻¹, respectively. Meanwhile, the parent compound, ibuprofen, has been extensively studied in marine organisms, mussels, with the highest concentration reported to be 730 ng g⁻¹. These findings suggest a need to monitor the occurrence of pharmaceutical metabolites in environmental samples routinely. Therefore, the present review is an important resource for the scientific community as it discusses crucial issues related to seawater contamination and the quality of food products.