Upcycling E-waste for Sustainable Innovation: Functional Materials, Toxicity Reduction, and Circular Design

Abstract

The exponential growth in electronic waste (E-waste) driven by digitalization, urbanization, and rapid technological turnover presents an urgent global challenge due to its complex composition of valuable and toxic materials. While conventional recycling methods often fail to recover critical resources efficiently and contribute to environmental pollution, upcycling emerges as a transformative approach that not only recovers metals and polymers but also converts them into value-added functional materials. This review provides a comprehensive assessment of the composition and embedded resource potential of E-waste, highlighting the upcycling of printed circuit boards, wires, plastics, and rare earth element-rich components into high-performance catalysts, energy storage electrodes, sensors, and environmental remediation materials. Emphasis is placed on bio-assisted and green processing technologies, including bioleaching, deep eutectic solvents, and biomimetic synthesis, which offer low-impact alternatives for material recovery. The study also integrates life cycle safety, toxicity mitigation, and circular design frameworks to align material innovation with global sustainability goals. Industrial translation challenges, including technological scalability, market readiness, regulatory gaps, and informal sector integration, are critically discussed. By reframing E-waste as a resource-rich feedstock, this review presents upcycling as a viable pathway toward circular economy transition and sustainable materials innovation.