From conductive filament design to 3D-printed devices: A critical review and development guide for advanced electrochemical applications

Abstract

The application of 3D printing technology has grown significantly in both academic and industrial areas, enabling innovative approaches to materials design and device productions. Within 3D printing techniques, Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) has established considerable potential in the electrochemical field, especially with the advancement of electrically conductive filaments, which enabled the fabrication of customized, low-cost, and functional electrode materials with complex geometries and custom-made properties applied to energy or sensing applications. With this progress, there has been increasing interest in understanding the several aspects that influence the performance of 3D-printed electrochemical devices, such as the composition of printable materials, as well as the synthesis of novel conductive filaments, containing different materials, such as plasticizers, conductive materials, and tailored polymer matrices.Additionally, the optimization of printing parameters (temperature, speed, layer thickness, and infill density), has been recognized as essential for achieving desirable electrochemical performance while remaining structural integrity (appropriate printability). This review provides a development guide for obtaining conductive filaments applied for electrochemical applications and an overview of recent advances in 3D-printed materials focused on the development of electrodes for batteries, supercapacitors, water electrolysis, and sensors. The role of material selection, surface treatments, and printing conditions in optimizing 3D-printed electrode performance is highlighted. Current challenges and future perspectives for the development of highperformance, application-specific 3D-printed electrodes are also discussed focusing on sensing and energy applications.