Facile Hydrothermal Assembly of WS₂–RGO Heterostructures Guided by Chemometrics: A Green Electrochemical Strategy for Ceftriaxone Surveillance in Livestock

Abstract

The development of high-performance nanomaterials for electrochemical sensing is critical for ensuring food safety and public health. This work presents the fabrication and optimization of a Tungsten Disulfide–Reduced Graphene Oxide (WS₂–RGO) heterostructure for the sensitive voltammetric detection of ceftriaxone (CEF), an antibiotic of significant epidemiological relevance. The composite material was synthesized via a facile hydrothermal route, with structural characterization confirming the successful anchoring of WS₂ nanosheets onto the conductive RGO scaffold. To maximize analytical performance, a Box–Behnken Design (BBD) combined with Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was employed to optimize the experimental parameters. The optimized WS₂–RGO/GCE sensor exhibited remarkable current amplification and enhanced electron-transfer kinetics for CEF oxidation, offering a wide linear range (0.02–12.8 µM) and a low limit of detection (0.009 µM). The method was successfully validated in swine urine samples, achieving satisfactory recovery rates (96.8%–103.8%) and demonstrating statistical agreement with UHPLC. This study provides a robust, field-amenable solution for the rapid surveillance of antibiotic residues in the livestock supply chain.