Facile hydrothermal assembly of WS2–RGO heterostructures guided by chemometrics: a green electrochemical strategy for ceftriaxone surveillance in livestock

Abstract

The development of high-performance nanomaterials for electrochemical sensing is critical for ensuring food safety and public health. This work presents the fabrication and optimization of a tungsten disulfide–Reduced Graphene Oxide (WS₂–RGO) heterostructure for the sensitive voltammetric detection of ceftriaxone (CEF), an antibiotic of significant epidemiological relevance. The composite material was synthesized via a facile hydrothermal route, with structural characterization confirming the successful anchoring of WS₂ nanosheets onto the conductive RGO scaffold. To maximize analytical performance, a Box–Behnken Design (BBD) combined with Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was employed to optimize the experimental parameters. The optimized WS₂–RGO/GCE sensor exhibited remarkable current amplification and enhanced electron-transfer kinetics for CEF oxidation, offering a wide linear range (0.02–12.8 µM) and a low limit of detection (LOD) (0.009 µM). The method was successfully validated in swine urine samples, achieving satisfactory recovery (rev) rates (96.8–103.8%) and demonstrating statistical agreement with HPLC (high-performance liquid chromatography). Driven by a facile, green-synthesis approach, this study provides a robust, cost-effective, and field-amenable solution for rapid surveillance of antibiotic residues in the livestock supply chain.