Fluorescence-based detection of antibiotics in aquatic environments using carbon nanodots: a review

Abstract

Antibiotics, widely used in human and animal healthcare, persist in aquatic environments and pose environmental and public health risks, making their quantitative detection essential for monitoring water quality. The application of carbon dots (CDs) provides a simple, highly selective, sensitive, and cost-effective method for antibiotic sensing. Fluorescence-based CDs have shown great potential as sensors for antibiotic detection. However, variations in their production and surface properties pose challenges in understanding the underlying detection mechanisms and achieving consistent high sensitivity. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the production, fluorescence mechanism, and application of CDs for fluorescence-based detection of antibiotics in aquatic environments. It examines the key principles behind CD-based detection, focusing on sensitivity, selectivity, stability, and ease of use. Recent advances in CD synthesis and factors affecting fluorescence are discussed, along with the sensing mechanisms and challenges in detecting antibiotics in water. The review outlines future research directions to improve the sensitivity and selectivity of carbon dots (CDs) for practical applications, highlighting their potential in mitigating antibiotic contamination in wastewater. It also discusses design strategies for enhanced molecular recognition in complex matrices, the limitations of carbon-based nanomaterials, and the challenges associated with industrial-scale implementation. Additionally, the toxicity, biocompatibility, and biodegradability of CD-based sensors for in vivo applications are critically examined.