Life cycle assessment of perovskite solar cell manufacturing: effects of scale and process control

Abstract

Semiconductors underpin many modern technologies, from data processing and displays to power generation, and their performance relies on precise thin-film deposition processes. These processes control the composition and interfaces between device layers, ensuring that semiconducting materials function reliably without degradation. In high-value devices such as perovskite solar cells, variations in deposition methods can significantly affect both material use and product quality. Improving the precision, consistency, and sustainability of thin-film deposition is therefore essential to enable scalable, efficient, and environmentally responsible manufacturing. This study employs a process-based Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), extended to include activity-level steps, to evaluate environmental impacts across laboratory- and pilot-scale perovskite solar cell production. The analysis highlights energy consumption in processing equipment and facility operations as the dominant environmental burden, with the deposition stage representing a key target for efficiency improvements. Scaling from laboratory to pilot-scale production reduces perovskite solar cell manufacturing costs by approximately 99.8% per m² of active area, with an additional ∼8% reduction achieved through enhanced process control. At this scale, environmental impacts decrease by over 98% across global warming potential, human toxicity and aquatic ecotoxicity. Further integration of automated control systems lowers global warming and toxicity impacts by around 10%, while substituting grid electricity with low-carbon wind power amplifies these gains, reducing carbon emissions by up to 79%. The results demonstrate that combining process optimization with renewable energy sourcing provides a clear pathway toward sustainable, scalable perovskite solar cell manufacturing. The methodology is also broadly applicable to other thin-film semiconductor processes, offering guidance for improving operational efficiency while minimizing environmental impact.