Continuous sample drop flow microextraction: a versatile and green microextraction tool in analytical chemistry

Abstract

Continuous sample drop-flow microextraction (CSDF-ME) has become a powerful and versatile liquid-phase microextraction methodology that overcomes several of the analytical and environmental shortcomings of traditional sample preparation procedures. In CSDF-ME, the aqueous sample is continuously added to a small, stagnant volume of extraction solvent, resulting in large renewed interfacial areas that favor efficient mass transfer, high enrichment factors, and good reproducibility, using only microliter volumes of solvent. Despite its growing importance and increasing range of applications, an independent and comprehensive review dedicated exclusively to CSDF-ME is still lacking; therefore, a critical and focused overview of this technique is highly necessary. This review provides a comprehensive overview of CSDF-ME, covering its working principles, method development and optimization strategies, analytical performance and validation, as well as its applications in environmental, food, biological, and pharmaceutical analyses. Special focus is given to recent advances in green extraction methods, including the use of fatty acids and deep eutectic solvents. The existing constraints, such as automation and solid-sample processing, are addressed, and the prospects for further evolution and broader use of CSDF-ME are outlined. In general, CSDF-ME has proven to be an effective and environmentally friendly sample preparation method in modern analytical chemistry.