Chemical vs. electrochemical solid electrolyte interphase formation in potassium-ion batteries

Abstract

Potassium-ion batteries (KIBs) are a promising beyond–lithium-ion chemistry, offering advantages similar to sodium-ion systems in terms of earth-abundant materials and safety, with the additional benefit of reversible graphite intercalation and potential for improved low-temperature performance. These features make KIBs attractive for low-cost electric vehicles and stationary battery energy storage systems. However, they currently fall short of the cycle life required by these applications. A major source of capacity fade is instability of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI), which is influenced by electrolyte chemistry, temperature, and the electrochemical history of the cell. Many studies use potassium metal as a proxy to investigate SEI behaviour on graphite. On potassium metal, the SEI can form chemically via direct reaction with the electrolyte or electrochemically during potassium plating. In contrast, during charging of a graphite electrode, SEI formation occurs exclusively through electrochemical reduction. It therefore remains unclear to what extent the SEI formed on potassium metal is representative of that formed on graphite. Here, we employ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) to probe differences between chemical and electrochemical SEI formation on potassium metal, graphite, and inert electrodes in two contrasting potassium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (KFSI)-based electrolytes: 1 m KFSI in tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether (G4) and 1 m KFSI in 1,3-dioxane (13-DX). Four-dimensional scanning transmission electron microscopy (4D-STEM) phase mapping provides complementary structural insight. We establish relationships between SEI chemistry, electrolyte composition, electrode material, formation pathway, and applied potential, offering guidance for rational electrolyte design.