Multimodal 3D-printed passive samplers to monitor, model and prioritise in situ pharmaceutical and pesticide pollution risks to an aquatic freshwater invertebrate, Gammarus pulex

Abstract

Calibrated 3D-printed multi-modal passive sampler devices (3D-PSDs) were used herein both to monitor contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in freshwater and to estimate in situ chemical toxic and effect units for the aquatic invertebrate, Gammarus pulex, to support prioritisation strategies. A six-month study of water, biota, and 3D-PSDs in a heavily wastewater-impacted urban river catchment in London revealed 112 CECs detected, including pesticides, pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs and transformation products (water = 50; 3D-PSDs = 99; and G. pulex = 58 CECs). In G. pulex, the top three most concentrated CECs were citalopram (an antidepressant, at 101 ± 11 ng g⁻¹), imidacloprid and clothianidin (both neonicotinoid pesticides, at 63 ± 12 and 52 ± 39 ng g⁻¹, respectively). Principal component analysis revealed that passive sampler data represented chemical occurrence in the G. pulex better than using water data. Strong correlations existed between the passive sampler and biomonitoring data (R² > 0.84, p < 0.05) indicating a possibility to infer risk from the device directly and without using calibrated PSD uptake rates (R_s). This new approach showed promise as a potentially cost-effective way to rapidly prioritise sites and CECs for large-scale risk assessment campaigns for these species.