Spacer cation design: promoting vertical orientation in layered perovskites

Abstract

Low-dimensional hybrid perovskites exhibit strongly anisotropic charge transport due to their layered structure, where organic cations (R) separate n inorganic octahedral slabs. Controlling their vertical crystal orientation is critical for enabling efficient charge extraction in photovoltaic devices, but the underlying mechanism remains poorly understood. Here, we systematically investigate how the interplay between chloride incorporation and aromatic spacer R cation choice dictates the vertical growth and alignment of methylammonium (MA)-based n = 2 R₂MAPb₂(I_1−xCl_x)₇ perovskites. By combining advanced structural and optoelectronic characterisation with atomistic and machine-learning-accelerated simulations, we identify the fundamental factors governing vertical templating. Chloride incorporation is found to be limited and strongly R cation-dependent, indirectly promoting vertical orientation by altering interfacial energetics rather than by direct lattice substitution. Shorter aromatic cations (2-thiophenemethylammonium, TMA⁺, and benzylammonium, BnA⁺) induce preferential vertical alignment, yielding uniform morphologies and power conversion efficiencies approaching 8%, which are among the highest reported for purely n = 2 perovskites (bandgap of 2 eV). In contrast, longer spacer cation analogues (2-thiopheneethylammonium, TEA⁺, and phenethylammonium, PEA⁺) favour horizontal growth, producing disordered thin films with a poor photovoltaic response. Our combined experimental–computational insights reveal how the synergy between spacer cation size and chloride-mediated interfacial energetics steers vertical crystallisation, providing rational design principles for wide-bandgap, low-dimensional perovskites with enhanced out-of-plane charge transport and photovoltaic performance.