A critical review of PFAS in lithium-ion batteries: application, monitoring, exposure and health risk

Abstract

Lithium-ion batteries (LiBs) are the primary power supply and energy storage tools to meet modern society's high energy demands. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are important components integrated into the architecture of LiBs as electrolytes, additives, fire retardants, etc., to enhance battery performance and energy density. However, there is a significant risk of releasing these highly persistent and harmful substances through the entire LiB manufacturing, usage, disposal, and recycling life cycle. As the production of LiBs escalates with the inevitable shift to portable devices, electric vehicles, and renewable energy storage, LiB-derived PFAS are of concern and should be addressed. To serve this purpose, we have systematically summarized the typical PFAS originated from LiBs and the analytical techniques and methods to monitor their emission routes, environmental occurrence, and global distributions. Their human exposure, toxic effects, and health risks have then been discussed intensively, especially for the commonly detected LiB-derived bis-perfluoroalkyl sulfonimides (bis-FASIs). The information presented here aims to reveal the current status of LiB-derived PFAS research and provide a necessary scientific foundation for managing LiB associated risks, implementing a stringent monitoring protocol, formulating an effective regulatory policy, and promoting effective treatment techniques and safer PFAS-free alternatives. Ultimately, this review seeks to make a vital contribution to mitigating the environmental and public health impacts of the fast-growing LiB industry and fostering a greener energy future and sustainable development.