Hydrogen fuel cells: technical, economic, and policy pathways toward net-zero integration

Abstract

Hydrogen fuel cells (HFCs) present a viable clean energy solution but face significant economic and technical challenges. High costs, particularly from platinum-based catalysts and energy-intensive hydrogen production, hinder large-scale adoption. Green hydrogen, produced via renewable-powered electrolysis, remains expensive (∼$5.84 per kg), while infrastructure gaps and competition from battery electric vehicles further impede deployment. Technological barriers include catalyst degradation, membrane durability (e.g., Nafion in PEMFCs), and electrode design limitations. Emerging alternatives—such as palladium alloys, non-precious metal catalysts (M–N–C), and reinforced membranes—show promise but struggle with scalability and performance. System integration complexities, including thermal management and hydrogen storage, add to these challenges. Lifecycle assessments reveal that platinum accounts for ∼91% of MEA costs, while hydrogen production emissions vary widely (30–50 kg CO₂ per kg in Australia vs. 5–10 kg CO₂ per kg in Italy by 2030). Despite this, HFCs offer substantial decarbonization potential, particularly in heavy transport, with projected emission reductions of up to 67% by 2050. Future advancements hinge on AI-driven optimization, novel materials (e.g., MOFs for storage), and hybrid system designs. Policy support and infrastructure investment are critical to overcome the dilemma of supply and demand. This review specifically focuses on the significant gaps present in the existing literature by offering a thorough, multidisciplinary assessment that incorporates the latest developments in catalyst and membrane technology, comprehensive cost and lifecycle evaluations, and innovative AI-driven system optimization methods. In contrast to previous studies that predominantly emphasize isolated technical or economic factors, this paper distinctly merges technical, economic, environmental, and policy aspects to provide a comprehensive understanding of the scalability and sustainable integration of hydrogen fuel cells. By underscoring specific performance ranges, economic comparisons, and statistics on emission reduction, this review presents strategic insights that are crucial for researchers, policymakers, and industry leaders who are striving to expedite the transition to a hydrogen economy.