Manganese anodes for neutral electrolyte primary metal–air batteries

Abstract

This study presents the first application of metallic manganese as an anode in metal–air batteries, to the best of our knowledge, achieving an energy density of 1859 W h kg⁻¹ and a specific capacity of 1930 A h kg⁻¹ through galvanostatic discharge tests. This system delivers 2.5 times more energy per gram than zinc, a commonly used metal in metal–air batteries, under identical testing conditions. Electrochemical analysis and discharge by-product studies revealed a discharge process through three oxidation states of manganese: Mn, Mn(II), and Mn(III). The combined attributes of manganese, including its abundance and environmental stability, position the Mn–air battery as a viable and sustainable option for energy storage from intermittent renewable sources.