Advancing Energy Storage: A Comparative Review of Nickel-Cadmium, Nickel-Metal Hydride, and Sodium-Ion Batteries

Abstract

Energy storage technologies are critical to supporting modern applications, ranging from portable electronics to large-scale renewable energy systems. Among the prominent solutions, Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd), Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH), and Sodium-Ion (Na-ion) batteries exhibit distinct characteristics, advantages, and limitations. NiCd batteries, known for their robustness and reliability, are suited for demanding applications but face environmental concerns due to cadmium toxicity. NiMH batteries, with improved energy density and reduced environmental impact, are pivotal in hybrid vehicles and renewable energy storage. Emerging Na-ion batteries leverage abundant sodium resources to offer cost-effective and scalable alternatives to lithium-ion systems, addressing resource scarcity and supply chain challenges. This review compares these technologies, exploring their mechanisms, performance metrics, and future prospects. Research directions include advancing electrode materials, enhancing recycling techniques, and developing solid-state and hybrid systems. By highlighting their unique roles and innovation pathways, this work underscores the potential of these battery technologies to shape a sustainable energy future.