Design, structure, and application of conductive polymer hybrid materials: a comprehensive review of classification, fabrication, and multifunctionality

Abstract

Conductive polymer (CP) hybrids combine the electronic properties of polymers with the mechanical strength, thermal stability, and catalytic features of secondary materials. This review presents four major structural categories: core–shell assemblies, interpenetrating networks, layered composites, and dispersed nanocomposites. Each class is linked to fabrication routes such as in situ polymerization, electrochemical deposition, solution blending, and sol–gel techniques. We evaluated the influence of these structural forms on performance metrics, including electrical conductivity, flexibility, and long-term durability. Representative applications in sensing, energy storage, corrosion protection, and environmental remediation are examined to highlight their functional advantages and practical limitations. Challenges in synthesis, precision, material stability, and device integration are also discussed. A final roadmap connecting structural design choices to specific application outcomes and outlining priorities for the future development of scalable and multifunctional CP hybrid systems is presented.