A review of construction and sustainable recycling strategies of lithium-ion batteries across electric vehicle platforms

Abstract

The rapid adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) hinges on addressing two critical challenges of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs): thermal safety risks and end-of-life sustainability. This review provides a systematic comparison of LIB integration across four EV architectures including battery electric (BEV), hybrid (HEV), plug-in hybrid (PHEV), and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV), with a dual focus on mitigating thermal runaway and advancing recycling technologies. Through analysis of recent previous studies, we reveal three key findings: (1) battery pack configurations and thermal management systems across platforms; (2) thermal runaway mechanisms and mitigation strategies through case studies of field failures; and (3) emerging recycling methods achieve material recovery with lower energy input, though industrial-scale implementation remains challenging. Our meta-analysis identifies hydrometallurgy as the most viable near-term solution for LIB recycling (80–95% metal recovery), while highlighting promising alternatives like electrochemical relithiation that preserve cathode crystal structure. The work further examines critical infrastructure gaps, demonstrating that renewable-powered charging and localized recycling networks could reduce EV lifecycle emissions by 30–40%. By bridging materials innovation with systems engineering, this review provides a roadmap for developing safer, more sustainable LIB ecosystems from cell design to second-life applications, and prioritizes research directions for next-generation batteries compatible with evolving EV architectures.