Removal of pharmaceutical residues from aquatic systems using bimetallic metal–organic frameworks (BMOFs): a critical review

Abstract

In recent years, pharmaceuticals have become a major environmental issue due to their ongoing release and persistence in aquatic ecosystems, even at low concentrations. Among various solutions, bimetallic metal–organic frameworks (BMOFs) have attracted considerable attention. This is not only because of their tunable pore structures, large surface area, and excellent reactivity but also due to the incorporation of multiple metal ions, which enhance their ability to remove and degrade pharmaceutical residues. This review provides a detailed analysis of the advantages of BMOFs, introduces the occurrence of pharmaceutical residues and their toxic effects on the environment and humans, and, for the first time, explores their applications in removing pharmaceutical residues. Additionally, we discuss current challenges and future perspectives for BMOFs, aiming to advance their development and maximize their potential in environmental applications. We aim to provide detailed and meaningful insights to researchers in both materials science and environmental studies, thereby driving advancement in this interdisciplinary arena.