Sustainable approaches in vat photopolymerization: advancements, limitations, and future opportunities

Abstract

Vat photopolymerization (VP) is reshaping advanced manufacturing, yet its dependence on petrochemical-derived resins poses significant sustainability challenges. This review critically evaluates conventional photocurable formulations, highlighting the limitations of standard metrics such as the biobased carbon content (BCC%), and introduces the sustainable formulation score (SFS) as a comprehensive alternative. By integrating factors like atom economy, hazardous reagent usage, solvent selection, and end-of-life considerations, SFS offers a more holistic measure of environmental impact. The analysis encompasses diverse resin systems, including (meth)acrylated vegetable oil derivatives, biobased small molecules from lignin and other renewable sources, non-isocyanate urethanes, and thiol–ene formulations. For vegetable oil-based systems, a key trade-off is observed between achieving high biobased content and maintaining optimal mechanical properties, driven by variations in the degree of acrylation and processing conditions. In contrast, the synthesis of small biobased molecules often involves toxic reagents and less favorable atom economies, reducing their overall green appeal. Moreover, non-isocyanate urethanes and thiol–ene systems emerge as promising routes for improving sustainability while preserving performance. Overall, this review underscores the need for unified green metrics and optimized synthesis strategies to bridge the gap between environmental sustainability and material performance in photopolymer formulations, paving the way for more responsible and efficient additive manufacturing technologies.

Graphical abstract: Sustainable approaches in vat photopolymerization: advancements, limitations, and future opportunities

Supplementary files

Article information

Article type
Critical Review
Submitted
08 May 2025
Accepted
01 Jul 2025
First published
02 Jul 2025
This article is Open Access
Creative Commons BY license

Green Chem., 2025, Advance Article

Sustainable approaches in vat photopolymerization: advancements, limitations, and future opportunities

M. Maturi, E. Locatelli, A. Sanz de Leon, M. Comes Franchini and S. I. Molina, Green Chem., 2025, Advance Article , DOI: 10.1039/D5GC02299A

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