Electrolytic gold plating, stripping, and ion transport dynamics through a solid-state iodide perovskite

Abstract

The pronounced electrochemical reactivity between halide perovskites and metal electrodes can introduce mobile extrinsic metal ions which can cause device instability or enable novel functionalities. Here we systematically investigate the kinetics of gold cation (Au⁺) migration in indium tin oxide (ITO)/methylammonium lead triiodide (MAPbI₃)/Au model devices under long-term potentiostatic biasing. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and density functional theory (DFT) analyses reveal that Au⁺ ions, electrochemically generated at the Au anode, traverse the perovskite layer with diffusion coefficients on the order of 10⁻¹¹ to 10⁻¹⁰ cm² s⁻¹ and are subsequently reduced at the cathode as Au⁰ clusters, resembling metal plating behavior in electrolytic cells and solid-state batteries during charging. Furthermore, reversing the applied bias strips the plated Au⁰, revealing reversibility suitable for bipolar resistive switching devices and providing direct evidence of the electrochemical and ionic nature of Au transport within the perovskite matrix. Quantitatively determining diffusion coefficients and ion concentrations provides foundational inputs for future drift-diffusion modelling opportunities and allows us to relate our findings to implications on long term operation of devices like photovoltaic modules. These results clearly demonstrate the solid-state electrochemical nature of perovskite devices, highlight methods to be more quantitative about ion transport properties, provide and emphasize the importance of disentangling electro-, photo-, photoelectrochemical processes for understanding device performance and unlocking new functionalities.