Issue 39, 2022

Spatial programming of self-organizing chemical systems using sustained physicochemical gradients from reaction, diffusion and hydrodynamics

Abstract

Living organisms employ chemical self-organization to build structures, and inspire new strategies to design synthetic systems that spontaneously take a particular form, via a combination of integrated chemical reactions, assembly pathways and physicochemical processes. However, spatial programmability that is required to direct such self-organization is a challenge to control. Thermodynamic equilibrium typically brings about a homogeneous solution, or equilibrium structures such as supramolecular complexes and crystals. This perspective addresses out-of-equilibrium gradients that can be driven by coupling chemical reaction, diffusion and hydrodynamics, and provide spatial differentiation in the self-organization of molecular, ionic or colloidal building blocks in solution. These physicochemical gradients are required to (1) direct the organization from the starting conditions (e.g. a homogeneous solution), and (2) sustain the organization, to prevent it from decaying towards thermodynamic equilibrium. We highlight four different concepts that can be used as a design principle to establish such self-organization, using chemical reactions as a driving force to sustain the gradient and, ultimately, program the characteristics of the gradient: (1) reaction–diffusion coupling; (2) reaction–convection; (3) the Marangoni effect and (4) diffusiophoresis. Furthermore, we outline their potential as attractive pathways to translate chemical reactions and molecular/colloidal assembly into organization of patterns in solution, (dynamic) self-assembled architectures and collectively moving swarms at the micro-, meso- and macroscale, exemplified by recent demonstrations in the literature.

Graphical abstract: Spatial programming of self-organizing chemical systems using sustained physicochemical gradients from reaction, diffusion and hydrodynamics

  • This article is part of the themed collection: PCCP Reviews

Article information

Article type
Perspective
Submitted
04 Jun 2022
Accepted
15 Sep 2022
First published
29 Sep 2022
This article is Open Access
Creative Commons BY-NC license

Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2022,24, 23980-24001

Spatial programming of self-organizing chemical systems using sustained physicochemical gradients from reaction, diffusion and hydrodynamics

A. C. Nguindjel, P. J. de Visser, M. Winkens and P. A. Korevaar, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2022, 24, 23980 DOI: 10.1039/D2CP02542F

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