Hydrazonechelators for the treatment of iron overload disorders: iron coordination chemistry and biological activity

Abstract

The potentially tridentate ligand 2-pyridinecarbaldehyde isonicotinoyl hydrazone (HPCIH) and its analogues are an emerging class of orally effective Fe chelators that show great promise for the treatment of Fe overload diseases. Herein, we present an extensive study of the Fe coordination chemistry of the HPCIH analogues including the first crystallographically characterised Fe^II complex of these chelators. Unlike most other clinically effective Fe chelators, the HPCIH analogues bind Fe^II and not Fe^III. In fact, these chelators form low-spin bis-ligand Fe^II complexes, although NMR suggests that the complexes are close to the high-spin/low-spin crossover. All the Fe complexes show a high potential Fe^III/II redox couple (> 500 mV vs. NHE) and cyclic voltammetry in aqueous or mixed aqueous/organic solvents is irreversible as a consequence of a rapid hydration reaction that occurs upon oxidation. A number of the HPCIH analogues show high activity at inducing Fe efflux from cells and also at preventing Fe uptake by cells from the serum Fe transport protein transferrin. As a class of ligands, these chelators are more effective at reducing Fe uptake from transferrin than inducing Fe mobilisation from cells. This may be related to their ability to intercept Fe^II after its release from transferrin within the cell. Our studies indicate that their Fe chelation efficacy is due, at least in part, to the fact that these ligands and their Fe^II complexes are neutral at physiological pH (7.4) and sufficiently lipophilic to permeate cell membranes.