Solid–solid palladium-catalysed water reduction with zinc: mechanisms of hydrogen generation and direct hydrogen transfer reactions

Abstract

Facile generation of hydrogen gas from water takes place under moderate conditions in the presence of zinc powder and catalytic palladium on carbon; 82% conversion of zinc is obtained. An unusually large kinetic isotope effect is observed using D₂O (k_H/k_D=14), which may reflect the cleavage of both O–H bonds in the rate-determining step. Experiments using D₂O–H₂O mixtures evidence that water molecules adsorbed on the catalyst surface undergo H–D exchange reactions (with molecules from the solvent bulk) that are approximately 100 times faster than the hydrogen generation reaction. The primary factors in this system appear to be palladium–hydrogen and zinc–oxygen interactions. Conversely, in the presence of an organic hydrogen acceptor, such as benzaldehyde, a different course is realised, consisting of direct hydrogen transfer from ‘‘zinc-activated ’’ water to the substrate, without the participation of Pd–H intermediates. Quantitative hydrogenation of benzaldehyde to benzyl alcohol, and of aromatic nitro compounds to the corresponding amines, is obtained. Another application of the above system is the specific deutero-dehalogenation of aromatic halides. Possible mechanisms and the implications of a chemical reaction involving two macroscopic solid particles are discussed.