Closed-loop engineering of chemically anchored lead–carbon composites via thermodynamic-kinetic synergy for ultra-long-life lead–carbon batteries

Abstract

Current manufacturing of lead–carbon battery additives is restricted by complex synthesis, poor interfacial stability, and low scalability. Here, we report a green, industrially viable complexation-precipitation process using rice-husk-based activated carbon (RHAC) to engineer PbO/RHAC composites with atomic-scale precision. By systematically regulating thermodynamic and kinetic pathways—specifically governing phase-transition volume fractions and atomic diffusion—we successfully suppressed Ostwald ripening during kilogram-scale production. The resulting additive features robust Pb–O–C covalent anchoring, which significantly mitigates the hydrogen evolution reaction and negative plate sulfation. Batteries incorporating this composite achieved a cumulative cycle life of 27 292 cycles over three consecutive high-rate partial-state-of-charge (HRPSoC) tests, representing a 10.2-fold improvement over standard benchmarks. Economic analysis confirms a 35.23% gross profit margin, providing a sustainable, high-throughput pathway for next-generation energy storage materials.