From capture to circularity: carbon-based adsorbents bridging adsorption, regeneration, and destruction pathways for sustainable PFAS remediation

Abstract

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) persist in water systems due to their extreme chemical stability and weak degradability, demanding treatment approaches that extend beyond simple capture. This review delineates the molecular-to-system framework governing PFAS adsorption, regeneration, and destruction on carbon-based materials under realistic conditions. Mechanistic insights reveal that hydrophobic partitioning, electrostatic steering, and fluorophilic affinity jointly control adsorption, while pore blocking, dissolved organics, and temperature govern short-chain breakthrough and desorption. Advances in nitrogen/fluorine-doped carbons, hierarchical porosity, and hybrid magnetic or electroactive scaffolds enable rapid, selective uptake and multi-cycle regeneration. Coupled destructive pathways—electrochemical, supercritical CO₂, mechanochemical, and sonochemical—achieve near-complete mineralization and fluoride recovery, paving the way toward circular PFAS management. Integrating adsorption with regeneration and life-cycle evaluation establishes a sustainable, low-carbon paradigm that transforms PFAS remediation from single-use removal to capture–regenerate–destroy–reuse circularity.