Low-temperature zinc–air batteries: catalyst design and electrolyte regulation

Abstract

Zinc–air batteries (ZABs) offer a high theoretical energy density and intrinsic safety, yet their performance deteriorates rapidly at low temperatures, where oxygen electrocatalysis, ion transport, and interfacial stability are strongly compromised. Addressing these temperature-dependent limitations is central to enabling their reliable operation in cold environments. This review summarizes recent progress in materials engineering and electrolyte regulation toward low-temperature-tolerant ZABs. Advances in transition-metal–nitrogen–carbon (TM–N–C) catalysts, metal oxides, high-entropy alloys (HEAs), and emerging hybrid systems are discussed, highlighting how electronic-structure modulation, defect engineering, and synergistic multi-component interactions sustain the oxygen reduction and evolution kinetics under diminished thermal activation. In addition, recent progress in aqueous and gel polymer electrolytes is summarized, emphasizing the critical role of solvation-structure regulation and hydrogen-bond network disruption in suppressing water crystallization while maintaining ionic conductivity at sub-zero temperatures. Perspectives are provided on the integration of catalytic and interfacial regulation with electrolyte engineering to advance ZABs toward dependable low-temperature operation.