Advances of MXene/liquid metal composites for next-generation rechargeable batteries

Abstract

MXene, a two-dimensional (2D) material known for its high electrical conductivity, abundant surface functional groups, various types, and tunable morphology, has emerged as a promising material for widespread applications. Liquid metal (LM), characterized by its fluidic nature, excellent thermal/electrical conductivity, and self-healing properties, has also attracted significant interest from the scientific community. Recently, the integration of MXene with LM has gained great attention in rechargeable batteries due to its ability to overcome challenges such as volume expansion of electrode materials, dendrite formation, and interface instability. The synergistic combination of MXene and LM has shown some special properties in promoting the electrochemical performance of batteries, particularly in lithium–ion, lithium–metal, and zinc–ion batteries. These MXene/LM composites can serve as high-performance anodes, versatile interface layers, or flexible current collectors, contributing to improved battery efficiency, stability, safety, and cycling life. This review offers an in-depth analysis of the latest developments in MXene/LM composites for the first time, highlighting their applications in the field of next-generation high-energy-density rechargeable batteries. Furthermore, this review explores the future prospects and potential avenues for research in this rapidly evolving domain.

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1. Introduction

A stable and sustainable energy supply is vital for the swift advancement of the global economy. The environmental issues linked to excessive fossil fuel dependence are increasingly evident, underscoring the importance of developing and utilizing green energy sources like solar energy, wind energy, and hydro power. These sources typically require conversion to electricity, necessitating efficient storage technologies for large-scale applications. Rechargeable batteries, as the central energy storage devices, have significantly transformed energy utilization and are extensively employed in smart grids, electric vehicles, and portable electronics.^1–3

Nowadays, the further advancement of rechargeable batteries is critically hindered by limitations in electrode materials, which suffer from unstable structure, inadequate cycling stability, suboptimal rate performance, and restricted specific capacity.^4–8 These issues significantly constrain enhancements in battery energy density, power density, and longevity, impeding their broader application.^9,10 Consequently, the development of advanced electrode materials with superior overall performance is pivotal to overcoming these technological barriers.¹¹

MXene and LM as functional materials have attracted widespread attention in the past several years and there is a growing trend in the number of papers published year by year (Fig. 1a and b).^12–17 Especially for LM, its research group is much larger. Recently, a lot of researchers have found that the combination of MXene and LM exhibits some unexpected features and functions.^18–22 As a result, the investigation of MXene/LM composites has become a research hotspot (Fig. 1c). In battery fields, integrating MXene with LM to fabricate MXene/LM composites represents a promising approach to overcoming the limitations of conventional electrode materials in rechargeable batteries, including unstable interfaces, poor mechanical flexibility, and restricted cycle life. Extensive research in this field since 2019 has demonstrated the significant potential of MXene/LM composites for rechargeable battery applications (Fig. 1d). MXene/LM composites can act as active materials or address issues in Li metal anodes, Zn metal anodes, and Si anodes through various structural designs. However, a systematic and comprehensive review of MXene/LM composites in rechargeable batteries is still missing. So it is necessary and meaningful to analyze and summarize these advances now.

Fig. 1 (a)–(c) Publication details for “MXene”, “Liquid metal”, and “MXene and Liquid metal” on the Web of Science (Nov. 2025), respectively. (d) A timeline showing some typical works on MXene/LM composites in rechargeable batteries. Reproduced with permission,²⁵ Copyright 2011, John Wiley and Sons. Reproduced with permission,⁸⁹ Copyright 2019, John Wiley and Sons. Reproduced with permission,¹³² Copyright 2020, Elsevier. Reproduced with permission,⁷¹ Copyright 2022, John Wiley and Sons. Reproduced with permission,⁹³ Copyright 2022, Royal Society of Chemistry. Reproduced with permission,¹⁰³ Copyright 2024, Elsevier. Reproduced with permission,¹²⁰ Copyright 2024, American Chemical Society. Reproduced with permission,¹⁰⁹ Copyright 2024, American Chemical Society. Reproduced with permission,¹⁴³ Copyright 2024, American Chemical Society. Reproduced with permission,¹¹⁷ Copyright 2025, Elsevier.

Herein, we for the first time systematically review MXene/LM composites in rechargeable batteries based on our research background. Initially, this review outlines the background of these composites and provides fundamental information on MXene and LM. It then summarizes the advantages, preparation methods, and applications of MXene/LM composites. Detailed applications of MXene/LM composites in rechargeable batteries are subsequently discussed. Finally, this review presents some future outlooks and prospects, aiming to assist in advancing MXene/LM composites in the rechargeable battery field.

2. MXene

2.1 Types of MXene

MXene, a cutting-edge 2D material, comprises early transition metal carbides, nitrides, and carbonitrides, with a general formula of M_n+1X_nT_x (n = 1–4).²³ Here, M denotes early transition metals such as Ti, V, Cr, Nb, Mo, Ta, and Zr; X represents carbon and/or nitrogen; and T_x signifies surface functional groups like –F, –OH, –O, and –Cl. These groups of MXene are introduced during the synthesis process and significantly affect MXene's properties.²⁴ Ti₃C₂T_x, the first reported MXene, was prepared in 2011 by Yury's group through etching the Ti₃AlC₂ MAX phase with HF solution, with its surface groups varying based on the etchant used.^24,25 Theoretically, over 100 stoichiometric MXene structures are possible, with more than 30 types, including Ti₃C₂T_x, Ti₂CT_x, Nb₂CT_x, V₂CT_x, etc., being successfully synthesized in laboratories.²⁶ Their structures can be engineered from multi-layer “accordion-like” forms to single or few layer structures.^27,28 As research progresses, the MXene family will continue to grow and more MXenes can be fabricated.

2.2 Advantages of MXene

MXene offers several notable advantages (Fig. 2). Firstly, it possesses exceptional electrical conductivity, reaching up to 6000–8000 S cm⁻¹, making it ideal for high-performance electronic applications.^28,29 Secondly, its low ion diffusion barrier, exemplified by the Li⁺ diffusion barrier of Ti₃C₂T_x at just 0.07 eV, supports rapid ion transport, enhancing its performance in energy storage devices.³⁰ Thirdly, MXene's diverse and tunable structures allow for the creation of various morphologies, including 0D quantum dots, 1D nanofibers, 2D nanosheets, and 3D foams, facilitating the design of functional materials.^31–35 Additionally, its abundant and adjustable surface functional groups enable chemical modification and self-assembly.³⁶ Furthermore, MXene's good dispersibility in water and some organic solvents simplifies its processing into films or composites.³⁷ It also boasts high mechanical strength, which improves its composite stability. Moreover, MXene's varied elemental compositions allow the derivation of new structures, such as TiO₂/C, through techniques like heat treatment, broadening its application potential.³⁸

Fig. 2 Advantages of MXene and LM.

2.3 Synthesis methods of MXene

MXene synthesis primarily involves selectively etching the A atomic layers from the MAX phase, while preserving the M–X bond framework to form a 2D structure.³⁹ In 2011, Yury's team pioneered the production of Ti₃C₂T_x MXene by etching Ti₃AlC₂ using HF solution.²⁵ Since then, numerous etching techniques have emerged, including using fluoride-based aqueous solutions, alkali-assisted hydrothermal methods, electrochemical etching, anhydrous etching, molten salt etching, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), direct synthesis method, saturated salt solution (S³) etching, and gas–solid synthesis.^40–45 Each method varies in etching efficiency, functional group control, and environmental impact. Future MXene synthesis strategies are likely to focus on becoming more environmentally friendly, cost-effective, and scalable, with high-quality.^46,47

2.4 Application of MXene

MXene exhibits broad applicability across numerous domains, including energy storage and conversion, electronic devices, electromagnetic shielding, water treatment, catalysis, biomedicine, and sensors.^48–51 In rechargeable batteries, MXene can function as a current collector or electrode material, promoting ion diffusion, inhibiting dendrite formation, and improving cycling stability.^52–55 Its high electrical conductivity and surface activity further enhance its potential in flexible electronics and catalytic reactions.^56–58 As research progresses, MXene's application prospects are poised to expand further.

3. LM

3.1 Types and merits of LM

LM usually indicates a metal or an alloy that remains liquid below 30 °C.^59,60 LM includes Hg, Fr, Cs, Ga, and Ga-based alloys (e.g., GaIn, GaSn, GaInSn, and GaInSnZn), as well as sodium–potassium alloy (Na–K alloy).^59,60 LM offers advantages such as high electrical and thermal conductivity, low melting point, elevated surface tension, low adhesion, flexibility, high resistivity, self-healing capacity, low hardness, strong alloying capability, and excellent fluidity (Fig. 2).^61,62

3.2 Application of LM

LM's exceptional performance has led to its widespread application in fields such as sensors, catalysis, soft robotics, artificial intelligence devices, microfluidics, electronic devices, biomedicine, mechanical engineering, energy storage and conversion, flexible devices, thermal management, and functional materials.^63–66 In the energy storage and conversion field, LM holds significant promise.^67,68 It can function as an interface modification layer or composite component to enhance the stability of metal anodes.⁶⁹ Ga-based LM, for instance, acts as a nucleation seed, preventing dendrite growth and promoting uniform metal deposition due to its wettability.⁷⁰ Its fluidity and self-healing capabilities can preserve electrode integrity and mitigate volume expansion during cycling.^71,72 Additionally, LM can form 3D conductive frameworks or serve as an alloying matrix, enhancing the conductivity and mechanical toughness of electrode materials.^73–76

4. MXene/LM composites

4.1 Advantages of the combination of MXene and LM

The MXene/LM composite leverages the strengths of both components, offering a synergistic approach to overcome the limitations of single materials. MXene, a 2D material, boasts high electrical conductivity, abundant surface functional groups, robust mechanical strength, and rapid ion transport, making it an ideal framework for LM. Conversely, LM offers room-temperature fluidity, self-healing capabilities, high theoretical capacity, and biocompatibility. When combined, MXene provides stable mechanical support, preventing LM agglomeration and migration, while the LM's fluidity buffers volume changes, repairs microcracks, and enhances interfacial interactions.^77–79 In addition, there are many oxygen-containing functional groups on the surface of MXene, which may be helpful for the combination of MXene and LM, because LM tends to form a thin oxidation film upon combination with oxygen.⁸⁰

4.2 Fabrication methods of MXene/LM composites

2D MXene and LM both easily tend to agglomerate. So, how to achieve their uniform dispersion and mixing is important in the fabrication of MXene/LM composites. Some methods can be used to overcome this issue, such as ultrasonic treatment, powerful mechanical stirring, and adding effective surfactants or dispersants. To date, many effective strategies have been reported for preparing MXene/LM composites, focusing on achieving uniform dispersion of the LM and stable interfacial bonding with MXene, including vacuum filtration,^81,82 ball milling,⁸³ solution-based mixing,^84–86 spray deposition,^21,77 ultrasonic treatment,²² electrostatic interaction,⁸⁷ photoinitiation,⁸⁸ solvent-assisted dispersion,¹⁸ blade coating,⁸⁹ and freeze-drying.⁹⁰ Optimization of the preparation parameters is crucial, as they influence the composites’ microstructure and properties, enabling the synergistic regulation of their function and structure.

4.3 Application of MXene/LM composites

MXene/LM composites hold significant promise in energy storage,⁸⁹ flexible electronics,⁹⁰ thermal management,⁹¹ electromagnetic interference shielding,⁸¹ reducing friction/wear,⁸⁷ photothermal conversion,⁸⁵ sensors,⁸⁴ healthcare monitoring,⁹² textiles,¹⁹ etc. For example, in the energy storage and conversion field, they can serve as electrode materials for rechargeable batteries.⁸⁹ When used as a lithium–ion battery anode, the MXene network in MXene/LM could buffer volume expansion of the electrode,⁹³ while the LM's self-healing property could maintain electrical contact and integrality of the electrode, ensuring high capacity and long-cycling stability of batteries. All in all, MXene/LM composites have already been widely applied in rechargeable batteries as active materials or for addressing issues of electrodes (Fig. 3). In flexible electronics, these composites are utilized in electronic tattoos and wearable sensors, where MXene forms a conductive network, and LM microcapsules provide self-healing and high stretchability.⁹⁴ For electromagnetic management, the composites offer high-performance electromagnetic interference shielding and wave absorption.⁸¹ Notably, a highly oriented MXene/LM film delivers excellent electromagnetic shielding with minimal thickness, and a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-encapsulated aerogel achieves effective wave absorption and thermal camouflage under extreme conditions like high temperatures and corrosive environments.⁹⁵ Future advancements in preparation processes and interface mechanism research are suggested to extend the use of MXene/LM composites to artificial intelligence devices, biomedical implants, and aerospace equipment, advancing the practical application of new material technologies.

Fig. 3 A schematic diagram showing the application of MXene/LM composites in rechargeable batteries. Reproduced with permission,¹⁰³ Copyright 2024, Elsevier. Reproduced with permission,⁹³ Copyright 2022, Royal Society of Chemistry. Reproduced with permission,¹⁴³ Copyright 2024, American Chemical Society. Reproduced with permission,⁷¹ Copyright 2022, John Wiley and Sons. Reproduced with permission,¹³² Copyright 2020, Elsevier. Reproduced with permission,¹²⁰ Copyright 2024, American Chemical Society. Reproduced with permission,¹¹⁷ Copyright 2025, Elsevier.

5. Application of MXene/LM composites in rechargeable batteries

5.1 As anodes in lithium–ion batteries

Conventional lithium–ion battery anodes typically utilize a high-density Cu current collector, a carbon-based conductive agent, and a polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) binder, leading to limited flexibility and energy density.^96,97 In response to the demand for flexible and high-energy-density power sources for wearable and portable electronic devices, for the first time, Wei and coworkers have introduced a novel approach to integrate MXene and LM (Fig. 4a).⁸⁹ This is the first report about MXene/LM composites. They have engineered a flexible MXene/LM composite paper (MLP) to serve as the anode in lithium-–ion batteries (Fig. 4b and c). Initially, a Ti₃C₂T_x MXene solution was prepared through an acid (LiF + HCl) etching technique. Subsequently, a flexible MXene paper (MP) was fabricated via vacuum filtration of the MXene solution (Fig. 4d), onto which a GaInSnZn LM was coated, resulting in the creation of a binder-free and self-supporting composite anode (Fig. 4e and f). The MLP anode offers a combination of lightweight properties, flexibility, and high electrical conductivity, demonstrating a discharge capacity of 638.79 mAh g⁻¹ at a current density of 20 mA g⁻¹. Moreover, enhanced cycling stability could be achieved by narrowing the charge–discharge voltage range. Comparative analysis with an LM-coated Cu foil electrode revealed the superior specific energy density and structural robustness of the MLP. LM could react with Cu to form a CuGa₂ alloy, which affected the electrochemical stability of the electrode. In contrast, LM could remain stable with MP.

Fig. 4 (a) A schematic diagram showing the fabrication process of MLP. (b) and (c) Photographs of MLP. SEM images of (d) MP and (e) MLP. (f) SEM image of MLP and its EDS mapping. Reproduced with permission,⁸⁹ Copyright 2019, John Wiley and Sons.

Lithium–ion batteries require advanced anode materials to satisfy the demands of portable electronics and electric vehicles.⁹⁸ Alloy-based anodes suffer from issues of pulverization and volume expansion during cycling, leading to reduced cycle life of batteries. While LM faces challenges like agglomeration, reactions with most metallic current collectors, and short circuit risks.⁹⁹ Recently, Zhang et al. developed a lithium–ion battery anode with self-healing properties by encapsulating eutectic gallium–indium (EGaIn) LM within a 3D Ti₃C₂T_x MXene framework (Fig. 5).⁹³ They etched Ti₃AlC₂ powders in a LiF/HCl solution at 40 °C for 24 h, followed by washing, ultrasonic dispersion, and centrifugation to produce a high-concentration Ti₃C₂T_x MXene colloidal suspension (15 mg mL⁻¹). This MXene suspension was combined with EGaIn LM and sonicated into a LM–Ti₃C₂T_x hydrogel, which was then immersed in liquid nitrogen for 12 h and then freeze-dried for another 12 h to achieve the 3D porous LM–Ti₃C₂T_x composite. The MXene's elastic network mitigated external volume expansion, while the LM's fluidity addressed internal pulverization, resulting in superior rate performance and cycling stability of the LM–Ti₃C₂T_x electrode in batteries. The LM–Ti₃C₂T_x anode achieved a discharge capacity of 489 mAh g⁻¹ at 5 A g⁻¹, and it still maintained a discharge capacity of 409.8 mAh g⁻¹ after 4500 cycles, with a high capacity retention of 90.8%.

Fig. 5 A schematic diagram showing the fabrication process of the LM–Ti₃C₂T_x composite and its lithiation/delithiation mechanism. Reproduced with permission,⁹³ Copyright 2022, Royal Society of Chemistry.

2D Ti₃C₂T_x MXene possesses high conductivity, a layered structure, and abundant surface functional groups.^100,101 However, challenges such as easy stacking and oxidation compromise its ion diffusion resistance and cycling stability.¹⁰² To mitigate these issues, Zhang et al. developed a 3D hydrangea-like Ti₃C₂T_x/PANI/LMNP (TPL) composite using non-oxidative polymerization and nanoparticle integration techniques (Fig. 6a).¹⁰³ Initially, they transformed 2D Ti₃C₂T_x nanosheets into a 3D conductive framework, termed the Ti₃C₂T_x/PANI (TP) composite, through non-oxidative polymerization of aniline on the Ti₃C₂T_x MXene surface. Subsequently, GaIn liquid metal nanoparticles (LMNPs) were generated via ultrasonic treatment and incorporated into the TP framework to form the 3D hydrangea-like TPL composite. In this composite, LMNPs were evenly dispersed within the TP conductive network, leveraging the high theoretical capacity of LMNPs and the conductivity of the MXene framework (Fig. 6b). Consequently, the lithium–ion battery utilizing the TPL electrode demonstrated a notable specific capacity of 906.9 mAh g⁻¹ at 0.1 A g⁻¹, with a capacity retention of 98.5% after 100 cycles. Even at 5 A g⁻¹, it still maintained a reversible capacity of 467.0 mAh g⁻¹ after 150 cycles, surpassing the performance of pure Ti₃C₂T_x and TP electrodes.

Fig. 6 (a) A schematic diagram showing the fabrication process of the TPL composite and (b) its lithiation/delithiation mechanism. Reproduced with permission,¹⁰³ Copyright 2024, Elsevier.

2D MXene materials are promising candidates for high-rate anodes due to their large interlayer spacing and rapid ion transport, but they are limited by their low theoretical capacity.^104–106 In contrast, room-temperature LM has high theoretical capacity and self-healing properties but struggles with poor interface contact and aggregation.^107,108 Liu et al. addressed these issues by developing a composite anode material (V₂CT_x@LM), encapsulating a GaInSn alloy within porous V₂CT_x MXene layers through selective etching and ultrasonic mixing (Fig. 7a).¹⁰⁹ The researchers first etched the Al layer from V₂AlC using HF, creating a porous V₂CT_x structure. A GaInSn alloy was then synthesized by heating Ga, In, and Sn in a 7 : 2 : 1 mass ratio at 180 °C for 3 h under argon. Subsequently, V₂CT_x and the GaInSn LM were ultrasonically mixed in isopropanol for 90 minutes at an optimized ratio of 40 wt% V₂CT_x to 60 wt% LM, with ethyl 3-mercaptopropionate as a surfactant. After vacuum drying, the composite electrode was obtained (Fig. 7b and c). When used as a lithium–ion battery anode (Fig. 7d), it achieved a capacity of 1174.6 mAh g⁻¹ after 200 cycles at a current density of 200 mA g⁻¹ and 529.6 mAh g⁻¹ after 100 cycles at −20 °C. The charge transfer resistance was reduced to 47.9 Ω, demonstrating excellent low-temperature cycling stability and ion transport kinetics.

Fig. 7 (a) A schematic diagram showing the preparation process of V₂CT_x@LM. (b) and (c) SEM image of V₂CT_x@LM and its EDS mapping. (d) A schematic diagram showing the lithiation mechanism of V₂CT_x@LM. Reproduced with permission,¹⁰⁹ Copyright 2024, American Chemical Society.

5.2 Modifying Si anodes

Si is a promising anode choice for next-generation lithium–ion batteries, boasting a high theoretical specific capacity of 4200 mAh g⁻¹, abundant availability, and low operating voltage.^110–112 However, its practical application is restricted by its huge volume expansion (300%–400%) during charge–discharge cycles and poor intrinsic conductivity, which lead to electrode pulverization and rapid capacity decay.^113,114 While traditional carbon-based composites can partially mitigate volume expansion, their rigidity and single conductive network often fail under cycling stress.^115,116 To overcome these challenges, Lin et al. developed a coil-shaped silicon-based composite (Si@LM–SA@MXene) using ultrasonic and freeze-drying techniques (Fig. 8a and b).¹¹⁷ They utilized ultrasonic cavitation to crosslink LM (Ga–In–Sn alloy) with sodium alginate (SA), forming the LM@SA gel sheath that encapsulates nano-Si particles, creating a Si@LM–SA core–shell structure. This was then combined with MXene nanosheets and subjected to freeze-drying to form Si@LM–SA@MXene composite microcoils. The design leverages an LM coating for self-healing conductivity and MXene microcoils for flexible encapsulation, effectively buffering volume expansion and maintaining a dynamic conductive network. Electrochemical tests revealed that the composite material, optimized with a suitable MXene content, retained a reversible capacity of 1082.9 mAh g⁻¹ at 1 A g⁻¹ after 200 cycles, indicating exceptional cycling stability and rate performance.

Fig. 8 Schematic diagrams showing the (a) preparation process of Si@LM–SA@MXene and (b) its formation mechanism. Reproduced with permission,¹¹⁷ Copyright 2025, Elsevier.

Micro-sized silicon (mSi) offers advantages such as low cost, ease of processing, and high packing density, yet faces challenges of pulverization and conductivity loss due to volume expansion.^118,119 Traditional solutions, such as carbon cladding and functional binders, often involve complex processes or reduce energy density. LM exhibits high electrical conductivity and mobility but has limited efficacy due to insufficient contact with the mSi interface when used alone. Recently, Yu's team proposed using LM particles as bridging agents to create cage-like and self-healing structures around mSi particles (mSi–LM–Ti₃C₂T_x), utilizing ligand chemical assembly of conductive Ti₃C₂T_x sheets (Fig. 9a).¹²⁰ Ti₃C₂T_x MXene nanosheets were synthesized by etching Ti₃AlC₂ powders and following the exfoliation method. While EGaIn suspensions in deionized water were prepared using a probe ultrasound strategy. In a sequence of Ti₃C₂T_x–EGaIn–Ti₃C₂T_x–EGaIn–Ti₃C₂T_x, mSi particles, EGaIn suspension, and Ti₃C₂T_x ink were combined and assembled to the mSi–LM–Ti₃C₂T_x. This assembly involved ligand bonding between the Ti₃C₂T_x surface functional groups (−OH, −O, and −F) and Ga³⁺ on the EGaIn passivation layer, forming a cage-like electrode structure. This configuration integrates the rigid conductive support of MXene with the flexible buffering capacity of LM, maintaining a capacity of about 800 mAh g⁻¹ at 2C and stabilizing at 1000 mAh g⁻¹ after 100 cycles at 1C, demonstrating a better structural integrity and interfacial stability than other electrodes (Fig. 9b).

Fig. 9 (a) Schematic diagrams showing the structure of the mSi–LM–Ti₃C₂T_x cage and the interaction between LM and MXene. (b) Schematic diagrams showing the failure mechanism of different electrodes. Reproduced with permission,¹²⁰ Copyright 2024, American Chemical Society.

5.3 Regulating Li metal anodes

Metallic Li is considered the most promising anode material for Li-based batteries due to its high theoretical capacity (3860 mAh g⁻¹) and low working potential (−3.04 V).^121–124 However, dendrite growth from uneven Li deposition and unstable interface has impeded its development and practical use in high-energy-density Li metal batteries.^125,126 MXene and LM have exhibited many merits in regulating Li metal anodes.^127,128 For example, the functional groups on MXene have certain lithiophilicity, which is beneficial for uniform Li deposition.^129–131 LM exhibits superior lithiophilic properties and can be used as a nucleation seed to induce dendrite-free Li deposition. Recently, Wei and colleagues addressed issues of Li metal anodes by using the amorphous and lithiophilic GaInSnZn LM as a nucleation seed.¹³² Isotropic Li nucleation and uniform Li growth were achieved on an LM coated MXene film. The lithiophilicity of the MXene film was limited due to serious stacking. Besides, it also had a rough surface (Fig. 10a and b), which easily caused the “tip effect” and resulted in uneven Li deposition (Fig. 10c and d). After coating a 3 °C amorphous GaInSnZn LM on the MXene film (Fig. 10e and f), the “tip effect” resulting from surface defects was eliminated, enabling a dense and uniform Li deposition (Fig. 10g and h). As a result, the Li deposition on the MXene film was dendritic due to the “tip effect” caused by uneven electric field distribution. In contrast, the amorphous LM seeds exhibited a superior stability with MXene, inducing isotropic Li nucleation and uniform Li growth (Fig. 10i and j). In both ether and carbonate electrolytes, the LM decorated MXene film improved the Coulombic efficiency and cycling performance of symmetrical batteries. Correspondingly, full batteries using LiFePO₄ (or LiMn₂O₄) cathodes and the modified composite Li metal anodes also demonstrated a superior electrochemical performance. The study confirmed that the amorphous LM seeds could reduce side reactions and stabilize the SEI layer of Li metal anodes by promoting uniform Li deposition, suggesting a novel approach for Li anode modification potentially applicable to other metal anodes like Na, K, and Zn.

Fig. 10 (a) A photograph of an MXene film and (b) its corresponding SEM image. SEM images after plating (c) 0.5 and (d) 1 mAh cm⁻² of Li on the MXene film. (e) A photograph of an MXene/LM film and (f) its corresponding SEM image. SEM images after plating (g) 0.5 and (h) 1 mAh cm⁻² of Li on the MXene/LM film. Schematic diagrams showing the Li deposition behaviors on (i) the MXene film and (j) the MXene/LM film. Reproduced with permission,¹³² Copyright 2020, Elsevier.

5.4 Regulating the Zn metal anode

Zinc–ion batteries offer notable advantages over their lithium–ion counterparts, including low toxicity, low cost, high safety, and excellent biocompatibility, making them promising for large-scale energy storage and flexible electronics.^133–138 However, challenges such as Zn dendrite growth, poor cycling stability, interfacial side reactions like hydrogen evolution, and “dead Zn” formation hinder their advancement.^139,140 Current strategies, such as constructing interfacial protective layers, adding zincophilic sites, and designing porous hosts, are usually difficult to adequately balance ionic conductivity and interfacial stability, leading to increased ionic migration resistance or inadequate conductivity.^141,142 Thus, developing composite structures that ensure both high ionic transport efficiency and interfacial stability is imperative. To tackle this issue, Yu and colleagues developed a GaIn@MXene core–shell structure as an artificial protective layer for Zn metal anodes by integrating the GaIn LM alloy with MXene (Fig. 11a).¹⁴³ Within this composite, GaIn alloy nanoparticles are evenly distributed between the MXene layers, enhancing the interface stability via Ga³⁺–O–Ti bonding (Fig. 11b). Encapsulation of GaIn droplets between MXene nanosheets with abundant zincophilic sites could not only protect the Zn metal anode but also provide rapid ion transfer channels to decrease the overpotentials. So, uniform electric field distribution and suppressed side reactions were achieved for the Zn metal anode. The Zn dendrite issue was also addressed. After modification, the Zn metal anode demonstrated a cycle life of 1100 h at 1 mA cm⁻² with an overpotential of just 28.1 mV. The full battery, paired with a MnO₂ cathode, maintained an over 85% capacity retention after 1000 cycles at 0.2 mA cm⁻², presenting a novel strategy for high-performance zinc–ion batteries.

Fig. 11 (a) A schematic diagram showing the preparation process of GaIn@Mxene and GaIn@Mxene modified Zn foil. (b) A schematic diagram showing the Ga³⁺–O–Ti bond in GaIn@Mxene. Reproduced with permission,¹⁴³ Copyright 2024, American Chemical Society.

LM usually has a superior fluidity at room temperature, which can be used to regulate the interface issues of various metal anodes.^144–146 Recently, Gu and colleagues constructed an LM–MXene composite layer to optimize the ion transport and enabled a dendrite-free Zn deposition through a unique stress release mechanism. They developed an anode (ZnGaIn//MXene) comprising Zn-enriched LM (ZnGaIn) and a flexible MXene layer (Fig. 12a).⁷¹ During Zn deposition, the low Young's modulus of the LM substrate induced surface wrinkling, effectively releasing stress and maintaining a flat Zn deposition layer. Electrochemical tests revealed that the anode's nucleation overpotential is nearly zero, significantly lower than that of pure Zn foil and other rigid substrates, indicating a reduced nucleation energy barrier. This “stress release-trench deposition” mechanism allowed the ZnGaIn//MXene symmetric batteries to cycle stably for 600 hours at 1 mA cm⁻². Additionally, the assembled MnO₂-based full batteries retained a reversible capacity of 150 mAh g⁻¹ after 400 cycles at 3.2 A g⁻¹. In contrast, the deposited Zn on bare Zn metal anode was uneven and dendritic due to stress aggregation (Fig. 12b), resulting in a poor electrochemical performance. This study elucidated the crucial role of stress regulation in preventing the formation of Zn dendrites and highlighted the potential of MXene/LM composites for high-performance and flexible Zn metal anodes.

Fig. 12 A schematic diagram showing the Zn deposition behaviors on (a) ZnGaIn//MXene and (b) bare Zn anode. Reproduced with permission,⁷¹ Copyright 2022, John Wiley and Sons.

6. Perspectives and outlooks

The MXene/LM composite system can effectively create a novel high-performance electrode material and functional interface layer with integrated structures and functions. This synergy leverages the core attributes of MXene, including its high specific surface area, rich surface chemical activity, and excellent electronic conductivity, alongside the unique benefits of LM, such as its high fluidity, self-healing capability, and superior metallic properties. Research in rechargeable batteries has revealed that this composite material can significantly enhance key performance metrics, such as energy density, charge–discharge rate optimization, cycling stability, and mechanical flexibility.

Research on MXene/LM composites remains in its nascent stages and has a large scope for exploration in the future. Key scientific challenges, including material design mechanisms, interfacial interaction rules, and pathways for large-scale applications, are yet to be fully addressed. The field's significant development potential remains largely untapped. Future investigations must tackle numerous challenges while also seizing broad opportunities for innovation. Building on the preceding analysis and our research background on MXene/LM composites, we outline prospective research directions, with the core framework depicted in Fig. 13.

Fig. 13 The future possible directions of the MXene/LM composite for next-generation rechargeable batteries.

6.1 Increasing the types of MXene/LM composites

Current research predominantly examines composites of select LM, such as Ga or Ga-based alloys, with the common Ti₃C₂T_x MXene due to its relatively simple and mature synthesis method. Future efforts should significantly broaden the diversity of composite components. This includes exploring LM alloys with varied elemental compositions, such as those containing In, Sn, or Na–K alloys, to leverage their distinct surface tensions, oxidation behaviors, and electrochemical properties for diverse composite effects. Additionally, integrating other MXenes like Nb₂CT_x, Mo₂CT_x, and V₂CT_x should be pursued. Investigating the impact of different MXenes’ conductivity, interlayer structures, and surface terminations on the dispersion of LM and interfacial interactions will help identify composite material combinations with enhanced performance. Besides, MBene has attracted widespread attention recently due to its similar properties to MXene. So, the application of LM/MBene composites in rechargeable batteries deserves to be studied in the future.

6.2 Research on interfacial and synergistic mechanisms

The remarkable performance of MXene/LM composites arises from the synergistic effects at the two-phase interface. However, the structure–activity relationship between the microscopic interface mechanisms and macroscopic properties remains poorly understood, posing a significant barrier to material design. Future research must systematically investigate these interface mechanisms. Specifically, the formation of characteristic chemical bonds, charge transfer, and ion transport rules at the interface should be precisely analyzed to elucidate the regulatory logic governing electrical conductivity and ion mobility. Besides, in situ characterization techniques, such as in situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM), in situ X-ray photoelectron spectrometry (XPS), in situ atomic force microscopy (AFM), in situ X-ray diffraction (XRD), and in situ Raman study, along with theoretical calculations, artificial intelligence, and machine learning, should be employed to monitor the dynamic changes in interface structure during charging and discharging processes. These techniques could provide important theoretical insights for optimal material design and facilitate their transition for practical applications.

6.3 Developing green preparation processes

The preparation of composites traditionally relies on toxic reagents or high energy input, raising significant safety concerns. Recently, green methods for MXene synthesis have emerged, offering potential for the eco-friendly production of MXene/LM composites. Future composite fabrication should prioritize green, scalable, and cost-effective approaches. Achieving uniform dispersion and long-term stability of LM is essential, attainable through the regulation of MXene interlayer spacing, ultrasonic assistance, and optimized reaction conditions.

6.4 Promoting the exploration of applications in novel battery systems

Recently, numerous battery systems, including aluminum–ion, magnesium–ion, iron–ion, and calcium–ion batteries, have been proposed. Despite this diversity, research on the MXene/LM composite material has predominantly concentrated on lithium–ion batteries, leaving its potential in these emerging systems largely unexplored. The metallophilicity of LM and the rich surface chemical activity of MXene offer distinct advantages in regulating polysulfides, inhibiting dendrite growth, and stabilizing metal anodes, marking a promising avenue for future research on novel battery systems.

6.5 Strengthening the evaluation of practical application and device integration

When considering the large-scale production and application of MXene/LM composites, some issues need to be paid more attention, such as the uniform distribution of LM among MXene, the reasonable loading of LM on MXene, the cost issue, the exploration of scalable methods, and the possible oxidation of MXene. As we know, MXene is very prone to oxidation, especially at high temperatures, which may affect its application. To address the oxidation issue of MXene, strategies like lowering the fabrication temperature, adding an antioxidant, and using an inert atmosphere can be applied. As for the application of MXene/LM in rechargeable batteries, future research should transfer from laboratory-scale coin battery testing to evaluating pouch and cylindrical batteries, which are more applicable to practical use. A systematic study of the electrochemical performance, mechanical stability, and safety characteristics of composite materials at larger scales and under more demanding conditions is essential. Additionally, it is crucial to explore integration schemes for these materials in flexible and wearable electronic devices, assessing their reliability and lifespan in real-world applications.

7. Conclusions

In summary, this review systematically analyzes the research advancements of MXene/LM composites for next-generation rechargeable batteries. By employing strategies like 3D network encapsulation, using core–shell structures, and using multilayer composites, the metal deposition in these materials can effectively be regulated, their electrode stress can be buffered, and their interface stability can be maintained, thereby enhancing their cycle life, rate performance, and mechanical flexibility in rechargeable batteries. However, it is important to note that the current research landscape in this area is still in its early stages, with a predominant focus on initial material design and performance evaluation. Insufficient attention has been given to conducting comprehensive investigations into the intricate workings of composite mechanisms, the evolution of interfaces over extended cycling periods, and the development of scalable preparation methods. It is imperative for upcoming studies to explore novel material systems, optimize structures, and assess the practical applications of these composites. The functionality of MXene/LM composites in rechargeable batteries will be further improved by precise structural design, reasonable application, and comprehensive mechanism exploration. The primary objective of this review is to stimulate additional research endeavors in this particular field. We believe this review can attract a lot of attention in the future.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Data availability

This review does not include any primary research results, software, or code, nor does it involve the generation or analysis of new data.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Anhui Province (2508085MB028), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (92572201, U25A20238, and U21A2077), the Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province (ZR2022JQ08, ZR2024MB003, and ZR2023QB169), the Special Project for Scientific Research and Innovation of Young Teachers in Hefei University of Technology (JZ2025HGQA0103), and the Hefei University of Technology College Students’ Innovation Training Program Project (S202510359406 and X202510359678).

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