Machine-embroidered textile electrodes: parametric engineering for lab-on-glove electrochemical pesticide detection

Abstract

Wearable lab-on-glove systems offer the possibility of in situ electrochemical analysis for non-destructive detection by enabling direct human–surface interaction. However, scalable fabrication and mechanistic understanding of textile electrode architectures remain underdeveloped. Here, we establish computerised embroidery as a scalable electrochemical microfabrication strategy and demonstrate its integration into a wearable glove-based pesticide-sensing platform. Using a multi-needle embroidery system, the influence of fabrication parameters on electrochemical behaviour was studied, statistically analysed, and machine-learning-assisted feature analysis was employed to elucidate an electrochemical performance framework based on the embroidery parameters. The optimised embroidered textile-based biosensor was functionalised and validated for the detection of monocrotophos via inhibition-based electrochemical sensing. Electrochemical performance characterisation proved that the fabricated biosensor exhibited high repeatability, reusability and reproducibility. It also showed selective and sensitive detection of monocrotophos over the range of 5–100 μg L⁻¹, with a detection limit of 1.55 μg L⁻¹. The developed sensor also showed excellent storage stability over 90 days, retaining 99% of its initial response. Thus, the developed lab-on-glove platform enables in situ detection while integrating manufacturing scalability, structural control, and mechanistic electrochemical insight. This work redefines computerised embroidery as a programmable electrochemical microfabrication strategy and provides design principles for next-generation wearable textile biosensors.